| Sample |
Where sample is from a population where for any reason that population is almost uniformly more informed than the general public on a public issue. Sample bias can exist when non-random samples are unintentionally enrolled as a result of respondent selection techniques. |
Berk (1983), Marino et al. (2010)
|
| Motivated |
Where researchers have a desired outcome, they can convey this to respondents through subtle communication during survey administration. Researchers can also insert their own bias by designing questions that they hope will either garner the responses they want, or that they will find interesting. Whilst insertion of this can be conscious, and perhaps as a result unethical, it can also be unconsciously inserted by well-meaning researchers. |
Hammersley & Gomm (1996), Marino et al. (2010)
|
| Ingratiation |
Respondents can adjust their answers to gain favour or avoid disagreement with researchers. They may adjust their answers to fit a hypothesis they believe the researcher to be investigating. The nature of questions and the manner or appearance of researchers can invite this kind of bias. |
Back & Gergen (1943),Dijkstra (1987), Marino et al. (2010)
|
| Social desirability |
Respondents may give answers that they believe to be socially desirable so that they appear to conform to a societal position they believe is seen as favourable. |
Rossiter (2009) |
