Table 1. Analyzed animals.
The table shows the taxonomic classification with class, order and scientific name as reported in http://tolweb.org/tree/, http://www.arkive.org/, https://animaldiversity.org/, and the English name. Animals are sorted in the following order: birds - anseriformes, charadriformes, ciconiformes, columbiformes, galliformes, gruiformes, phoenicopteriformes, struthioniformes - and mammals - artiodactyla, carnivora, dasyuromorphia, didelphimorphia, hyracoidea, perissodactyla, primates, proboscidae, rodentia, scandentia. The locations where the animals were recorded are labeled by capital letters: F - Falconara zoo (Falconara, Italy); N - Iacchelli Farm (Nemi, Italy); R - Zoo of Rome (Rome, Italy); J - Nara City (Nara, Japan); LF – Fischer laboratory (Fischer et al., 2002); LA – Akay laboratory (Akay et al., 2014); LR – our laboratory (Rome, Italy). Next, we identify each species with a serial number and the first three letters of the corresponding taxonomic order, we report the number of analyzed animals, the typical body weight of adults (data from the literature), the mean speed for the recorded strides, the approximate dimensionless speed (Froude number, Fr), and the total number of analyzed strides for hindlimbs and forelimbs. For humans, we recorded both overground walking in one subject and treadmill walking (at 5 km/hr) in five subjects (data pooled together). For mice, video recordings were used from a previously published study (Movie S1 in Akay et al., 2014), while the kinematic data of the six mammals marked by asterisks are derived from Fischer et al. (2002). In the latter case, the number of averaged strides varied: at least 15, but up to 300 step cycles were averaged.
| Order | Animals | Location | Label | N of animals |
Typical weight (kg) |
V
(m/s) |
Fr | N of strides | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HL | FL | |||||||||
| Birds | Anseriformes | Goose (Alopochen aegyptiaca) | F | 1Ans | 2 | 1.9 | 0.66 | 0.12 | 9 | - |
| Charadriiformes | Avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta) | F | 1Cha | 6 | 0.3 | 0.43 | 0.06 | 8 | - | |
| Ciconiiformes | Ibis (Threskiornis aethiopicus) | F | 1Cic | 3 | 15 | 0.54 | 0.09 | 5 | - | |
| Columbiformes | Pigeon (Columba livia) | N | 1Col | 3 | 0.4 | 0.72 | 0.32 | 7 | - | |
| Galliformes | Guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) | N | 1 Gal | 5 | 1.3 | 0.48 | 0.06 | 11 | - | |
| Peacock (Pavo cristatus) | R | 2 Gal | 4 | 4.4 | 0.60 | 0.06 | 11 | - | ||
| Gruiformes | Crane (Balearica regulorum) | F | 1Gru | 2 | 3.5 | 0.39 | 0.04 | 5 | - | |
| Phoenicopteriformes | Flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus) | F | 1Pho | 6 | 2.5 | 0.36 | 0.02 | 11 | - | |
| Struthioniformes | Rhea (Rhea americana) | R | 1Str | 5 | 25 | 0.56 | 0.04 | 11 | - | |
| Ostrich (Struthio camelus) | F | 2Str | 6 | 110 | 0.57 | 0.03 | 10 | - | ||
| Mammals |
Artiodactyla | Addax (Addax nasomaculatus) | R | 1Art | 1 | 93 | 1.07 | 0.12 | 2 | 2 |
| Ox (Bos taurus) | F | 2Art | 2 | 755 | 0.71 | 0.07 | 6 | 5 | ||
| Camel (Camelus bactrianus) | F | 3Art | 2 | 475 | 1.08 | 0.08 | 10 | 7 | ||
| Goat (Capra hircus) | F | 4Art | 2 | 45 | 1.17 | 0.16 | 3 | 2 | ||
| Waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) | F | 5Art | 2 | 215 | 0.82 | 0.07 | 8 | 7 | ||
| Deer (Dama dama) | F | 6Art | 4 | 56 | 0.95 | 0.12 | 10 | 7 | ||
| Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) | F,R | 7Art | 4 | 1560 | 1.21 | 0.06 | 9 | 10 | ||
| Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus
amphibious) |
F | 8Art | 1 | 2250 | 0.37 | 0.01 | 7 | 1 | ||
| Llama (Lama glama) | F | 9Art | 3 | 143 | 0.53 | 0.04 | 5 | 5 | ||
| Lechwe (Kobus megaceros) | R | 10Art | 4 | 175 | 0.79 | 0.07 | 7 | 5 | ||
| Nyala (Tragelaphus angasii) | F | 11Art | 3 | 91 | 0.57 | 0.03 | 5 | 4 | ||
| Oryx (Oryx dammah) | F | 12Art | 2 | 190 | 0.97 | 0.12 | 10 | 10 | ||
| Sika deer (Cervus nippon) | J | 13Art | 3 | 63 | 0.78 | 0.09 | 6 | 6 | ||
| Carnivora |
Dog (Canis lupus familiaris) | R | 1Car | 6 | 35 | 1.06 | 0.24 | 35 | 36 | |
| Cat (Felis catus) | R | 2Car | 2 | 8 | 1.00 | 0.27 | 6 | 5 | ||
| Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) | F | 3Car | 2 | 50 | 0.87 | 0.10 | 10 | 9 | ||
| Lion (Panthera leo) | F | 4Car | 1 | 130 | 1.32 | 0.17 | 10 | 10 | ||
| Lynx (Lynx lynx) | F | 5Car | 1 | 20 | 0.81 | 0.11 | 10 | 10 | ||
| Wolf (Canis lupus) | F | 6Car | 1 | 40 | 1.05 | 0.20 | 6 | 6 | ||
|
|
|
Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) | F | 7Car | 1 | 13 | 0.78 | 0.15 | 9 | 9 |
| Cougar (Puma concolor) | F | 8Car | 2 | 62 | 1.05 | 0.18 | 10 | 10 | ||
| Suricate (Suricata suricatta) | F | 9Car | 6 | 0.7 | 0.63 | 0.29 | 10 | 8 | ||
| Tiger (Panthera tigris) | F | 10Car | 2 | 257 | 1.22 | 0.13 | 8 | 8 | ||
| Dasyuromorphia | Kowari (Dasyuroides byrnei*) | LF | 1Das | 2 | 0.145 | * | * | * | * | |
| Didelphimorphia | Short-tailed opossum (Monodelphis domestica*) |
LF | 1Did | 2 | 0.092 | * | * | * | * | |
| Hyracoidea | Rock hyrax(Procavia capensis*) | LF | 1Hyr | 2 | 1.2 | * | * | * | * | |
| Perissodactyla | Donkey (Equus asinus) | F | 1Per | 2 | 203 | 0.81 | 0.07 | 16 | 12 | |
| Pony (Equus) | F | 2Per | 1 | 50 | 1.02 | 0.16 | 11 | 11 | ||
| Tapir (Tapirus terrestris) | R | 3Per | 2 | 200 | 0.99 | 0.12 | 2 | 1 | ||
| Zebra (Equus burchellii) | F | 4Per | 4 | 310 | 1.18 | 0.12 | 11 | 11 | ||
| Primates | Gibbon (Hylobates lar) | F | 1Pri | 3 | 5 | 1.03 | 0.23 | 6 | - | |
| Lemur catta (Lemur catta) | F,R | 2Pri | 7 | 3.9 | 0.66 | 0.14 | 10 | 3 | ||
| Macaque (Macaca fuscata) | R | 3Pri | 2 | 9.8 | 0.86 | 0.14 | 2 | 0 | ||
| Mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx) | R | 4Pri | 3 | 18 | 0.55 | 0.05 | 7 | 4 | ||
| Spider monkey (Ateles fusciceps) | F | 5Pri | 3 | 9 | 0.75 | 0.13 | 3 | 2 | ||
| Human (Homo sapiens) | LR | 6Pri | 6 | 68 | 1.46 | 0.27 | 67 | - | ||
| Proboscidea | Elephant (Elephas maximus) | R | 1Pro | 1 | 4050 | 1.24 | 0.07 | 6 | 6 | |
| Rodentia | Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) | F | 1Rod | 4 | 51 | 0.68 | 0.10 | 5 | 3 | |
| Cavy (Galea musteloides*) | LF | 2Rod | 2 | 0.3 | * | * | * | * | ||
| Porcupine (Hystrix cristata) | F | 3Rod | 2 | 20 | 1.17 | 0.50 | 4 | 3 | ||
| Mara (Dolichotis patagonum) | F | 4Rod | 3 | 8.1 | 0.82 | 0.18 | 9 | 9 | ||
| Rat (Rattus norvegicus*) | LF | 5Rod | 3 | 0.35 | * | * | * | * | ||
| Mouse (Mus) | LA | 6Rod | 1 | 0.03 | 0.52 | 0.34 | 3 | 3 | ||
| Scandentia | Common treeshrew (Tupaia glis*) | LF | 1Sca | 2 | 0.18 | * | * | * | * | |