Table 1.
Species and respective essential oils that showed anticonvulsant activity organized by botanical family, botanical name, part used, activity as described in the literature, compound isolated and references.
| FAMILY Species | PART USED | ACTIVITY OF ESSENTIAL OILS (as described in the literature) | MAIN COMPOUNDS ISOLATED/REFS. | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| APIACEAE | ||||||||
| Cuminum cyminum Linn. (syn. Cuminum odorum Salisb) | Fruits | The oil showed protection against pentylenetetrazole-induced epileptic activity by increasing the duration, decreasing the amplitude of after hyperpolarization potential (AHP) following the action potential, the peak of action potential, and inhibition of the firing rate. | [14] | |||||
| Ferula gumosa Boiss. | Fruits | The essential oil protected mice against pentylenetetrazole-induced tonic seizures. The protective dose produced neurotoxicity. Moreover, this dose was too close to the LD50 of the essential oil. The anticonvulsant and toxic effects of the essential oil may be related to the compounds pinene and α-thujene respectively. | Pinene andα-thujene [15] | |||||
| Heracleum crenatifolium | Fruits | The essential oil protected mice against maximal electroshock (MES)-induced seizures. | Octyl acetate and octanol [16] | |||||
| Pimpinella anisum L. | Fruits | Inhibitor of tonic convulsions induced by high doses of pentylenetetrazole and electroshock trans-corneal. | [17] | |||||
| ARACEAE | ||||||||
| Acorus calamus L. | Not available | Anticonvulsant action against experimental electroshock. Neither essential oil nor diphenylhydantoin were effective in modifying convulsions produced by metrazole. | [18] | |||||
| Acorus gramineus Aiton | Rhizomes | Inhibited the specific bindings of a use-dependent NMDA receptor-ion. Neuroprotective effects on cultured cortical neurons through the blockade of NMDA receptor activity. | [19] | |||||
| Rhizomes | Anticonvulsant effects, both Acorus gramineus and α-asarone can enhance the reactivity and convulsive threshold of immature rats to electric stimulation. | α-asarone [20] | ||||||
| Rhizomes | Pre-inhalation of the oil markedly delayed the appearance of pentylene-tetrazole-induced convulsion. Furthermore, inhalation impressively inhibited the activity of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) trans-aminase, a degrading enzyme for GABA as the inhalation period was lengthened. The GABA level was significantly increased and glutamate content was significantly decreased in mouse brain by pre-inhalation of the essential oil. | [21] | ||||||
| Acorus tatarinowii Schott. | Rhizomes | The volatile oil (1.25 g/kg) decreased the convulsive rate significantly in the maximal electroshock model. But failed to prevent seizures in the dose range tested, although prolonged seizure latency and decreased mortality were found at a dose of 1.25 g/kg. The oil can prevent convulsions as well as convulsion-related GABAergic neuron damage in the brain in the prolonged pentylenetetrazol kindling model. | [22] | |||||
| ASTERACEAE | ||||||||
| Artemisia annua L. | Fresh leaves | The essential oil (AEO) obtained by hidrodestilation increased the latency time to convulsions induced by picrotoxin and pilocarpine but prevented the onset of pentylenotetrazol and strychnine induced seizures. | [23] | |||||
| Artemisia dracunculus L. | Aerial parts | The oil exerted dose and time-dependent antiseizure activity reported in both maximal electroshock and pentylenetetrazole models. | trans-Anethole, α-trans-ocimene, limonene, α-pinene, cymene, eugenol, β-pinene, α-terpinolene, bornyl acetate, and bicyclogermacrene [24] | |||||
| Egletes viscosa (L.) Less. | Inflorescences | Activity against convulsion induced by PTZ in mice. | [6] | |||||
| EUPHORBIACEAE | ||||||||
| Croton zehntneri Pax & K. Hoffm. | Not available | Elevation of the threshold for starting a minimal convulsions induced by pentylenetetrazol. | [25] | |||||
| FABACEAE-MIMOSOIDEAE | ||||||||
| Tetrapleura tetraptera (Schumach. & Thonn.) Taub. | Fruits | Inhibitor of convulsions induced by PTZ and electroshocking in mice of both sex. | [26] | |||||
| Fresh fruits | The fresh oil given intraperitoneally offers some protection against leptazol-induced convulsions. A dose of 0.4 ml of the oil per mouse protected 78% of the animals when administered 30 min prior to leptazol | [27] | ||||||
| LAMIACEAE | ||||||||
| Aeollanthus suaveolens Mart. ex Spreng. | Not available | Inhibitor effect of convulsions induced by pentylenetetrazol and maximal electroshock in mice | Linalool[28] | |||||
| Leaves | The anticonvulsant properties of γ-decanolactone was observed in mice. The neurochemical essay with linalool in cortical membranes of rats showed a dose-dependent, not competitive of binding of [3H] MK 801 – an antagonist of receptor NMDA. Also observed the effects of linalool on glutamatergic system in the rat cerebral cortex and that linalool modifies the nicotinic receptor – ion channel kinetics at the mouse neuromuscular junction. | γ-Decanolactone and linalool [29,30,31,32] | ||||||
| Not available | The oil has an inhibitory effect of linalool on glutamate binding in rat cortex was observed. | Linalool [30] | ||||||
| Not available | Sedative properties on mice and has dose-dependent marked effects on the central nervous system, including hypnotic, anticonvulsant and hypothermic activity | γ-Decanolactone [29] | ||||||
| Not available | An inhibitory effect of linalool on the acetylcholine (ACh) release and on the channel open time in the mouse neuromuscular junction. | Linalool [31] | ||||||
| Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. | Leaves | Anti-convulsive in tests induced by pentylenetetrazol and electroshock in rats of both sex | [26] | |||||
| Lavandula stoechas L. | Not available | Used as inhalator showed anti-convulsive activity similar to the above. Moreover, was verified a higher level of latency and a reduction of level of the severity of convulsions. Complementary test suggest this activity maybe is related with the blocking of canals of calcium. The inhaling lavender oil vapor blocked pentylene-tetrazole- and nicotine-induced convulsion and electroshock convulsion in mice. | [33] | |||||
| Ocimum gratissimum L. | Not available | Essential oil obtained in Spring was able to protect animals against tonic seizures induced by electroshock (MES, 50 mA, 0.11 s). | Eugenol [34] | |||||
| Ocimum basilicum | Aerial part | When tested in mice, the essential oil, higher doses, produced significantly increased in a dose-dependent manner the latency of convulsion and percent of animals exhibiting clonic seizures. Likewise, it reduced lethality in response to different convulsive stimulus used in this study. | [35] | |||||
| Ocimum basilicum | Leaves | Essential oil increased the latency for development of convulsions in pentylenetetrazol and PIC tests. For pentylenetetrazol, the effects of EO were reversed by flumazenil. EO did not interfered with the convulsions induced by strychnine. | 1.8-Cineole, linalool, and geraniol were the main components, comprising 92.9% of the oil. [36] | |||||
| Not available | Essential oil blocked the clonic seizures induced by pentylenetetrazole, picrotoxin and strychnine | [37] | ||||||
| LAURACEAE | ||||||||
| Laurus nobilis L. | Leaves | Anticonvulsant activity was observed against pentylenetetrazole- and maximal electroshock-induced seizures. At anticonvulsant doses, the essential oil produced sedation and motor impairment. | Methyleugenol, eugenol and pinene [38] | |||||
| Myristica fragrans | Seed | Nutmeg oil was found to possess significant anticonvulsant activity against electroshock-induced hind limb tonic extension. It exhibited dose dependent anticonvulsant activity against pentylenetetrazole-induced tonic seizures. It delayed the onset of hind limb tonic extensor jerks induced by strychnine. Also it was anticonvulsant at lower doses, whereas weak proconvulsant at a higher dose against pentylenetetrazole and bicuculline induced clonic seizures. | [39] | |||||
| MYRTACEAE | ||||||||
| Eucalyptus citriodora Hook | Leaves | Not available | Citronellal, citronellol, and citronellyl acetate [40] | |||||
| Eucalyptus urophylla | Leaves | The oil increased the number of mice protected against pentylenetetrazole-induced death | [41] | |||||
| Eucalyptus camaldulensis var. camaldulensis Dehn. | Leaves | Not available | p-Cymene, spathulenol, cryptone, thymol, and linalool [42] | |||||
| Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry =Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb. | Flowers | Inhibition of tonic convulsions induced by electroshock in rats | [43] | |||||
| Psidium persoonii McVaugh = Psidium guianense Pers. | Leaves | The doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg, by via oral reduced as dose-dependent the severity of convulsions induced by pentylenetetrazole. Moreover, induced the depressor effect of spontaneous movement. | [44,45,46] | |||||
| POACEAE | ||||||||
| Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt | Leaves | Anticonvulsant activity was observed in pentylenetetrazole, pilocarpine, and strychnine tests. Anticonvulsant effect was blocked by flumazenil in pentylenetetrazole model. | The EO showed presence of geraniol, citronellal, and citronellol as the main compounds. [47], [48] | |||||
| Cymbopogon citratus (DC)Stapf | Leaves | Anticonvulsant activity was observed in pentylenetetrazole, pilocarpine, strychnine, and maximal electroshock tests. | [47], [49] | |||||
| Cymbopogon proximus | Plant | Administration of the oil to mice before induction of convulsions with electroshock, resulted in complete protection. There was partial protection in pentylenetetrazole, picrotoxin and strychnine tests. | Piperitone, elemol, and eudesmol. [50] | |||||
| RANUNCULACEAE | ||||||||
| Nigella sativa L. | Not available | The oil was the most effective in preventing pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures relative to valproate; also showed significantly decreased oxidative injury in the mouse brain tissue in comparison with the pentylenetetrazole-kindling group | Thymoquinone [51] | |||||
| RUTACEAE | ||||||||
| Citrus aurantium L. | Peel from fruits | EO from peel increased the latency period of tonic seizures in pentylenetetrazol and maximal electroshock models. Effect was not dose-dependent | [52] | |||||
| VALERIANACEAE | ||||||||
| Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC. | Not available | A ketonic principle, jatamansone, isolated from oil of N. jatamansi, is more effective than quinidine and essential oil of jatamansi in suppression of ectopic ventricular activity in unanesthetized dogs produced by 2-stage coronary ligation, equal to quinidine in combating auricular flutter induced by injury stimulation, and more effective than Na diphenyl-hydantoin and essential oil of jatamansi in maximal electroshock seizures. | Jatamansone [53] | |||||
| VERBENACEAE | ||||||||
| Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E. Brown. | Not available | The anticonvulsive effects of the essential oils (EOs) from three chemotypes of Lippia alba was observed. The animals were treated with citral (100 mg/kg, i.p.), α-myrcene or limonene (200 mg/kg, i.p.), EOs chem. constituents, presented significant increases in the latency of convulsion and percentage of survival. The association of EOs with diazepam significantly potentiated their effects, suggesting a similar mechanism of action. | Citral β-myrceneLimonene [54] | |||||