Figure 2.

An integrated approach between human, animal, and cell studies will be needed to determine the precise effects of environmental exposures on the placenta. To accomplish this, as illustrated in the figure, numerous factors should be carefully considered when establishing animal and in vitro models, and using findings from animal or in vitro studies to inform questions in humans. Furthermore, these factors should be taken into account when drawing conclusions regarding mechanisms of action of BPA and phthalates from the currently available literature.