Table 3.

Scope of diagnostic tests and outcomes in the eligible studies.

Diagnostic instrument	Outcomes measured	Reported associations with prenatal marijuana exposurea	Age at assessment	Article (Study, first author, year)
Bayley Scale of Infant Development	Mental Development Index: sensory/perceptual abilities, acquisition of object constancy, memory, learning, problem solving, vocalization and beginning of verbal communication Psychomotor Development Index: degree of body control, large muscle coordination, finer manipulatory skills of the hands and fingers, dynamic movement, postural imitation, and the ability to recognize objects by sense of touch (stereognosis)	No significant associations	1 year and 2 years	OPPS, Fried, 1988
Infant Behavior Record	Primary Cognition Composite Score: object orientation, goal directedness, attention span, reactivity, and vocalization	Positive association	1 year	OPPS, Fried, 1988
		No results reported.	2 years	OPPS, Fried, 1988
	Extraversion Score: social orientation to the examiner, cooperativeness, and general emotional tone Visual and auditory sensory systems	No associations	1 year and 2 years	OPPS, Fried, 1988
Reynell Developmental Language Scale	Comprehension	Negative association	2 years	OPPS, Fried, 1988
	Expression	No associations	2, 3, and 4 years	OPPS, Fried, 1988; 1990
Denver Developmental Scale	Gross motor development	Negative association	3 years	NMIHS, Faden, 2000
	Adaptive functioning, language, and fine motor development	No associations
McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities	General Cognitive Index (memory, verbal development, perception, and quantitative abilities)	No associations	3 years	OPPS, Fried, 1990
		Negative association	4 years	OPPS, Fried, 1990
		No associations	4, 5 and 6 years	Jamaica study, Hayes, 1991; OPPS, Fried, 1992
	Motor performance score	Positive association in moderately exposed children compared to unexposed and heavily exposed	3 years	OPPS, Fried, 1990
		No associations	4, 5 and 6 years	OPPS, Fried, 1990; 1992; Jamaica study, Hayes, 1991
	Memory score	No associations	3 years	OPPS, Fried, 1990
		Negative association	4 years	OPPS, Fried, 1990
		No associations	4, 5 and 6 years	Jamaica study, Hayes, 1991; OPPS, Fried, 1992
	Verbal score	No associations	3 years	OPPS, Fried, 1990
		Negative association	4 years	OPPS, Fried, 1990
		No associations	4, 5 and 6 years	Jamaica study, Hayes, 1991; OPPS, Fried, 1992
	Quantitative score	Negative association	3 years	OPPS, Fried, 1990
		No associations	4 years	OPPS, Fried, 1990
		No associations	4, 5 and 6 years	Jamaica study, Hayes, 1991; OPPS, Fried, 1992
	Perceptual score	No associations	3 years	OPPS, Fried, 1990
		Negative association	4 years	OPPS, Fried, 1990
		No associations	4, 5 and 6 years	Jamaica study, Hayes, 1991; OPPS, Fried, 1992
McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities subset adapted for use with children 3 to 12 years of age, truncated.	Category fluency (language development)	No associations	4 years	Prenatal cocaine exposure study, Noland, 2003
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, 4 Ed.	Composite score (IQ)	Negative association	3 years	MHPCD, Day, 1994
		No associations	4, 6 and 9 years	Developmental effects of prenatal substance exposure study, Bennett, 2008
		Not reported	6 years	MHPCD, Leech, 1999
		Negative association	6 years	MHPCD, Goldschmidt, 2008
	Short-term memory	Negative association	3 years	MHPCD, Day, 1994
		No associations	4, 6 and 9 years	Developmental effects of prenatal substance exposure study, Bennett, 2008
		Negative association	6 years	MHPCD, Goldschmidt, 2008
	Verbal reasoning	Negative association	3 years	MHPCD, Day, 1994
		No associations	4, 6 and 9 years	Developmental effects of prenatal substance exposure study, Bennett, 2008
		Negative association	6 years	MHPCD, Goldschmidt, 2008
	Quantitative reasoning	No associations	3 years	MHPCD, Day, 1994
		No associations	4, 6 and 9 years	Developmental effects of prenatal substance exposure study, Bennett, 2008
		Negative association	6 years	MHPCD, Goldschmidt, 2008
	Abstract/visual reasoning	Negative association	3 years	MHPCD, Day, 1994
		No associations	4, 6 and 9 years	Developmental effects of prenatal substance exposure study, Bennett, 2008
		No associations	6 years	MHPCD, Goldschmidt, 2008
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, III	Verbal IQ, attention	Not reported	4 years	Prenatal cocaine exposure study, Noland, 2003; 2005
		No associations	4.5 years	IDEAL, Chakraborty, 2015
Finger sequencing task adapted by Welsh for use with children.	Motor planning	No associations	4 years	Prenatal cocaine exposure study, Noland, 2003
Pegboard test	Manual dexterity and bimanual coordination	No associations	4 years	OPPS, Fried, 1990
Picture deletion task for preschoolers-modified (Corkum)	Attention	Non-significant negative association	4 years	Prenatal cocaine exposure study, Noland, 2005
Tactile Form Recognition Task	Stereognosis	No associations	4 years	OPPS, Fried, 1990
Tapping Inhibition (test of frontal lobe functioning (Luria) adapted by Diamond and Taylor for use with children 3.5 through 7 years of age)	Inhibitory control (Ability to override their natural, habitual, or dominant behavioral response to a stimulus in order to implement more adaptive goal-oriented behaviors)	No associations	4 years	Prenatal cocaine exposure study, Noland, 2003
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test	Vocabulary	Negative association	4 years	OPPS, Fried, 1990
		No associations	5 years, 6 years and 9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1992; 1997
Random Dot Kinematograms	Global motor perception (higher-level processing in visual cortex)	Positive association in children who were not prenatally exposed to alcohol.	4.5 years	IDEAL, Chakraborty, 2015
Conners Parent Questionnaire	Impulsivity hyperactivity	Non-significant negative association	6 years	OPPS, Fried, 1992
		No associations	6–9 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991
	Hyperactivity index, learning problems, and psychosomatic problems	No associations	6–9 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991
	Anxiety, conduct problems	Non-significant negative association	6–9 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991
Gordon Diagnostic System	Sustained attention and self-control	Negative association	6 years	OPPS, Fried, 1992
	Impulsivity	Negative association	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1998
Continuous Performance Task	Errors of commission (impulsivity)	Not reported	4 years	Prenatal cocaine exposure study, Noland, 2005
		Negative association	6 years and 10 years	MHPCD, Leech, 1999; Richardson, 2001
	Errors of omission (inattentiveness)	Not reported	4 years	Prenatal cocaine exposure study, Noland, 2005
		Positive association	6 years	MHPCD, Leech, 1999
The Sentence Memory Test	Immediate auditory memory and auditory attention for sentences	No associations	6 years	OPPS, Fried, 1992
The Target Test	Visual-spatial memory	No associations	6 years	OPPS, Fried, 1992
The Yale Child Study Center Attention Task	Attention and inhibitory control	No associations	6, 9, and 11 years	Developmental effects of prenatal substance exposure study, Carmody, 2011
Test of Visual-Perceptual Skills	Perceptual Quotient, Visual Discrimination, Visual Sequential Memory	Non-significant negative association	6–9 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991
		No associations	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 2000
	Visual Closure, Visual Figure Ground, Visual Form Constancy, Visual Memory, and Visual Spatial Relations	No associations	6–9 and 9–12 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991; Fried, 2000
Trail Making Test	Visual scanning, visuospatial sequencing, attention, mental flexibility, and motor function	Non-significant negative association	6–9 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991
		No associations	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 2000
Wide Range Achievement Test-revised	Reading, arithmetic, spelling	No associations	6–9 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991
		Negative association	10 years	MHPCD, Goldschmidt, 2004
	Reading	No associations	6–9 and 9–12 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991; Fried, 1997
Knox Cube Test	Visual attention, visual memory and visual sequencing	No associations	6–9 and 9–12 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991; Fried, 2000
Woodcock Reading Mastery Test	Passage comprehension	No associations	6–9 and 9–12 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991; Fried, 1997
Beery Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration	Visual-motor integration (copy geometric forms into a notepad)	No significant associations	6–9 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991
		No associations	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 2000
Draw a man	Intelligence (score is based on detail, proportion and coordination)	No significant associations	6–9 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991
Finger tapping	Motor control, speed and lateral coordination	No significant associations	6–9 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991
Stroop Interference	Tests the ability to sort and selectively react to information: e.g. word ‘red’ is printed in green ink. The child must say loudly the color of the text and not the word.	Non-significant negative association	6–9 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991
Test of Language Development (Primary syntax quotient score)	Ability to generate acceptable sentences	Non-significant negative association	6–9 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991
Auditory Working Memory	Working memory	Non-significant negative association	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1998
Category Test	Problem-solving capacity	Negative association	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1998
Fluency Test	Verbal fluency (number of words starting with ‘C’ and ‘P’ produced in 60 sec)	No associations	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1997; 1998
Oral Cloze Task	Ability to understand the basic grammatical structure of English based on auditory process	No associations	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1997
Pseudoword Task	Reading and decoding abilities	Non-significant negative association in children with moderate exposure compared to children with no or heavy exposure	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1997
Seashore Rhythm Test	Rhythm discrimination	No associations	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1997
Tactile Performance Task	Motor abilities and motor memory (blindfolded, place wooden blocks into properly shaped holes)	No associations	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1998
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 3rd ed.	Full scale IQ	No associations	6–9 and 9–12 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991; Fried, 1997; 1998; 2000
	Information	No associations	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1997
		Non-significant negative association	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1998
	Verbal IQ, Verbal Comprehension Index	No associations	6–9 and 9–12 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991; Fried, 1997; 1998
	Similarities, Vocabulary	No associations	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1997; 1998
	Performance IQ	No associations	6–9 and 9–12 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991; Fried, 1998
	Arithmetic, Processing Speed Index	No associations	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1998
	Freedom from Distractibility Index	No associations	6–9 and 9–12 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991; Fried, 1998; 2000
	Coding (discrimination and memory of visual symbols); Symbol Search (visual scanning), and Digit Span (memory)	No associations	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1998; 2000
	Comprehension	Negative association	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1998
	Mazes (rudimentary planning)	Negative association	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1998
		No associations	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 2000
	Perceptual Organization Index (a summary index of picture completion, picture arrangement, block design, and object assembly)	No association	6–9 and 9–12 years	OPPS, O’Connell, 1991; Fried, 1998
		Negative association	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 2000
	Object Assembly	Negative association	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1998; 2000
	Block Design	Negative association	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1998; 2000
	Picture Arrangement	No associations	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1998; 2000
	Picture Completion	No associations	9–12 years	OPPS, Fried, 1998; 2000
Child Behavior Checklist	Attention problems	No associations	10 years	MHPCD, Goldschmidt, 2000
Severe discrepancy between ability (Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, 4ed.)	Underachieving	Negative association	10 years	MHPCD, Goldschmidt, 2004
Swanson, Noland, and Pelham Assessment	Impulsivity, hyperactivity, inattention symptoms	Negative association	10 years	MHPCD, Goldschmidt, 2000
Teacher’s Report Form	Attention problems	No associations	10 years	MHPCD, Goldschmidt, 2000
Teacher’s assessment of the child in language arts, history, math, and science.	Educational performance	Negative association	10 years	MHPCD, Goldschmidt, 2004
Peabody Individual Achievement Test-revised	Reading comprehension	Negative association	10 years	MHPCD, Goldschmidt, 2004
Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning	Design memory, screening index	Negative association	10 years	MHPCD, Richardson, 2001
	Story memory, verbal learning	No association	10 years	MHPCD, Richardson, 2001

^aNegative associations were defined as statistically significant association in analyses adjusted for potential confounders between prenatal marijuana exposure and diminished neuropsychological function, e.g. lower scores on reading comprehension or memory; or higher scores on errors, impulsivity, inattention, or underachievement (p<0.05), regardless of the trimester of exposure. Positive associations were defined as statistically significant associations in adjusted analyses between prenatal marijuana exposure and enhanced neuropsychological function, e.g. higher scores on reading comprehension or memory; or lower scores on errors, impulsivity, inattention, or underachievement (p<0.05), regardless of the trimester of exposure. Non-significant negative and positive associations were defined as statistically significant negative or positive associations found in bivariate analyses but not in adjusted analyses (p≥0.05). No association the analyses did not find associations between prenatal marijuana exposure and neuropsychological functions in bivariate and adjusted analyses.