Table 1.
Socio-demographic and household fuel use characteristics of study participants, by sex and case or control status (N = 1,807).
| Females (N = 840) | Males (N= 967) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cases N (col. %) | Controls N (col. %) | Bivariate Analysis OR (95% CI) | Case s N (col. %) | Controls N (col. %) | Bivariate Analysis OR (95% CI) | |
| Total participants Primary stove, main kitchen | 191 (100) | 649 (100) | 390 (100) | 577 (100) | ||
| LPG | 142 (74.3) | 341 (52.5) | 1.00 | 245 (62.8) | 362 (62.7) | 1.00 |
| Biogas | 7 (3.7) | 70 (10.8) | 0.26 (0.10– 0.65) |
21 (5.4) | 61 (10.6) | 0.56 (0.30– 1.05) |
| Wood | 42 (22.0) |
234 (36.1) |
0.53 (0.29– 0.98) |
121 (31.0) |
152 (26.3) |
1.24 (0.78– 1.98) |
| Other | 0 (0.0) | 4 (0.6) | 1.00 | 3(0.8) | 2 (0.3) | 2.22 (0.34–14.45) |
| LPG | ||||||
| No | 181 (94.8) | 570 (87.8) | 1.00 | 364 (93.3) | 513 (88.9) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 10 (5.2) | 79 (12.2) | 0.48 (0.22–1.03) | 26 (6.7) | 64 (11.1) | 0.60 (0.35–1.02) |
| Biogas | ||||||
| No | 188 (98.4) | 609 (93.8) | 1.00 | 367 (94.1) | 543 (94.1) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 3 (1.6) | 40 (6.2) | 0.37 (0.11– 1.26) | 23 (5.9) | 34 (5.9) | 0.92 (0.51– 1.68) |
| Wood | ||||||
| No | 178 (93.2) | 572 (88.1) | 1.00 | 347 (89.0) | 512 (88.7) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 13 (6.8) | 77 (11.9) | 0.62 (0.32–1.21) | 43 (11.0) | 65 (11.3) | 0.96 (0.61–1.51) |
| Kerosene | ||||||
| No | 187 (97.9) | 639 (98.5) | 1.00 | 373 (95.6) | 568 (98.4) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 4 (2.1) | 10 (1.5) | 0.93 (0.27–3.28) | 17 (4.4) | 9 (1.6) | 2.80 (1.19–6.57) |
| Electric | ||||||
| No | 188 (98.4) | 628 (96.8) | 1.00 | 383 (98.2) | 550 (95.3) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 3 (1.6) | 21 (3.2) | 0.39 (0.11–1.39) | 7 (1.8) | 27 (4.7) | 0.28 (0.11– 0.70) |
| Rice Cooker (electric) | ||||||
| No | 93 (48.7) | 299 (46.1) | 1.00 | 208 (53.3) | 203 (35.2) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 98 (51.3) | 350 (53.9) | 0.57 (0.38–0.85) | 182 (46.7) | 374 (64.8) | 0.40 (0.29–0.56) |
| Other sec. stove type | ||||||
| No | 187 (97.9) | 618 (95.2) | 1.00 | 378 (96.9) | 544 (94.3) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 4 (2.1) | 31 (4.8) | 0.57 (0.18–1.82) | 12 (3.1) | 33 (5.7) | 0.58 (0.27–1.25) |
| Residential areaa | ||||||
| Urban | 120 (62.8) | 343 (52.9) | 226 (57.9) | 344 (59.6) | ||
| Rural | 71 (37.2) | 306 (47.1) | 164 (42.1) | 233 (40.4) | ||
| Age Categories (years) | ||||||
| 18 to <28 | 84 (44.0) | 125 (19.3) | 1.00 | 83 (21.3) | 118(20.5) | 1.00 |
| 28 to <38 | 41 (21.5) | 156 (24.0) | 0.36 (0.23–0.59) | 81 (20.8) | 97 (16.8) | 1.25 (0.81–1.93) |
| 38 to <48 | 24 (12.6) | 123 (19.0) | 0.30 (0.17–0.54) | 69(17.7) | 109 (18.9) | 0.88 (0.57–1.37) |
| 48 to <58 | 17 (8.9) | 118 (18.2) | 0.24 (0.13–0.44) | 73 (18.7) | 120 (20.8) | 0.81 (0.52–1.25) |
| 58 to 70 | 25 (13.1) | 127(19.6) | 0.32 (0.18–0.56) | 84 (21.5) | 133 (23.1) | 0.91 (0.59–1.40) |
| Marital Status | ||||||
| Married | 131 (68.6) | 521 (80.3) | 1.00 | 287 (73.6) | 467 (80.9) | 1.00 |
| Single | 41 (21.5) | 56 (8.6) | 2.31 (1.42–3.77) | 64 (16.4) | 95 (16.5) | 1.20 (0.82–1.75) |
| Widow(er) | 15 (7.9) | 62 (9.6) | 1.02 (0.53– 1.94) | 23 (5.9) | 10 (1.7) | 3.09 (1.41–6.78) |
| Divorced | 4 (2.1) | 10 (1.5) | 1.10 (0.33–3.70) | 16 (4.1) | 5 (0.9) | 4.96 (1.75–14.04) |
| Monthly Income (NR) | ||||||
| < Rs 8K | 32 (16.8) | 94 (14.5) | 1.00 | 92 (23.6) | 65 (11.3) | 1.00 |
| Rs 8 to <16K | 42 (22.0) | 134 (20.6) | 0.83 (0.45– 1.52) | 92 (23.6) | 110 (19.1) | 0.54 (0.34–0.86) |
| Rs 16 to <32K | 52 (27.2) | 166 (25.6) | 0.82 (0.46–1.46) | 99 (25.4) | 166 (28.8) | 0.37 (0.23–0.59) |
| Rs 32 To <64K | 34 (17.8) | 121 (18.6) | 0.50 (0.27–0.93) | 57 (14.6) | 130 (22.5) | 0.26 (0.16–0.43) |
| > Rs 64K | 13 (6.8) | 57 (8.8) | 0.48 (0.22– 1.04) | 19 (4.9) | 62 (10.7) | 0.18 (0.09–0.35) |
| Refuse/DNK | 18 (9.4) | 77 (11.9) | 0.56 (0.27–1.16) | 31 (7.9) | 44 (7.6) | 0.44 (0.24–0.82) |
| Worked Overseas |
||||||
| No | 185 (96.9) | 638 (98.3) | 1.00 | 273 (70.0) | 456 (79.0) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 6 (3.1) | 11 (1.7) | 1.49 (0.47–4.72) | 117 (30.0) | 121 (21.0) | 1.52 (1.11–2.08) |
| Education | ||||||
| No formal Ed | 67 (35.1) | 243 (37.4) | 1.00 | 81 (20.8) | 52 (9.0) | 1.00 |
| Any Primary | 32 (16.8) | 118 (18.2) | 1.17 (0.69–1.97) | 112 (28.7) | 120 (20.8) | 0.61 (0.38–0.98) |
| Any Secondary | 39 (20.4) | 170 (26.2) | 0.80 (0.50–1.29) | 138 (35.4) | 213 (36.9) | 0.36 (0.23–0.57) |
| Any Intermediate or vocational qualification. | 33 (17.3) | 73 (11.2) | 1.24 (0.72–2.13) | 42 (10.8) | 104 (18.0) | 0.22 (0.13–0.38) |
| Any College | 20 (10.5) | 45 (6.9) | 1.34 (0.70–2.58) | 17 (4.4) | 88 (15.3) | 0.11 (0.05–0.21) |
| Read & Write Nepali | ||||||
| No | 74 (38.7) | 230 (35.4) | 1.00 | 89 (22.8) | 56 (9.7) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 117 (61.3) | 419 (64.6) | 0.72 (0.50–1.05) | 301 (77.2) | 521 (90.3) | 0.37 (0.25–0.55) |
| Religion | ||||||
| Hindu | 157 (82.2) | 570 (87.8) | 1.00 | 313 (80.3) | 495 (85.8) | 1.00 |
| Buddhist | 18 (9.4) | 52 (8.0) | 0.94 (0.51–1.74) | 57 (14.6) | 64 (11.1) | 1.38 (0.91–2.08) |
| Muslim | 3 (1.6) | 3 (0.5) | 2.83 (0.43–18.78) | 2 (0.5) | 5 (0.9) | 0.58 (0.11–3.19) |
| Christian | 12 (6.3) | 19 (2.9) | 1.94 (0.88–4.29) | 12 (3.1) | (1.7) | 2.22 (0.90–5.47) |
| Other | 1 (0.5) | 5 (0.8) | 0.46 (0.05–4.09) | 6 (1.5) | 3 (0.5) | 4.00 (0.95–16.85) |
| Caste | ||||||
| Dalit | 37 (19.4) | 101 (15.6) | 1.00 | 88 (22.6) | 65 (11.3) | 1.00 |
| Disadvantaged Janajati | 50 (26.2) | 117 (18.0) | 1.19 (0.67–2.10) | 105 (26.9) | 99 (17.2) | 0.72 (0.44–1.15) |
| Religious Minority | 7 (3.7) | 14 (2.2) | 1.04 (0.34–3.15) | 9 (2.3) | 16 (2.8) | 0.37 (0.14–0.98) |
| Relative Adv. Janajatis | 51 (26.7) | 145 (22.3) | 0.81 (0.46–1.43) | 103 (26.4) | 153 (26.5) | 0.44 (0.28–0.71) |
| Upper Caste | 46 (24.1) | 272 (41.9) | 0.43 (0.25–0.74) | 85 (21.8) | 244 (42.3) | 0.21 (0.13–0.33) |
| Own Land | ||||||
| No | 20 (10.5) | 47 (7.2) | 1.00 | 54 (13.8) | 34 (5.9) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 162 (84.8) |
599 (92.3) | 0.74 (0.41–1.34) | 334 (85.6) | 540 (93.6) | 0.39 (0.24–0.64) |
| Refuse/DNK | 9 (4.7) | 3 (0.5) | - | 2 (0.5) | 3 (0.5) | - |
| Kitchen Location | ||||||
| Kitchen inside house | 135 (70.7) | 409 (63.0) | 1.00 | 268 (68.7) | 367 (63.6) | 1.00 |
| Attached Kitchen | 35 (18.3) | 149 (23.0) | 0.82 (0.52–1.30) | 66 (16.9) | 141 (24.4) | 0.68 (0.47–0.98) |
| Unattached Kitchen | 16 (8.4) | 78 (12.0) | 0.81 (0.43–1.54) | 38 (9.7) | 64 (11.1) | 0.66 (0.41–1.09) |
| Outside Kitchen | 5 (2.6) | 13 (2.0) | 1.47 (0.41–5.30) | 18 (4.6) | 5 (0.9) | 5.01 (1.64–15.33) |
| House ownership | ||||||
| Yes | 106 (55.5) | 563 (86.7) | 1.00 | 241 (61.8) | 505 (87.5) | 1.00 |
| No | 85 (44.5) | 86 (13.3) | 3.96 (2.59–6.05) | 149 (38.2) | 72 (12.5) | 6.78 (4.59–10.00) |
| Household Crowding |
||||||
| ≤ 2/room | 148 (77.5) | 606 (93.4) | 1.00 | 284 (72.8) | 527 (91.3) | 1.00 |
| > 2/room | 43 (22.5) | 43 (6.6) | 3.16 (1.92–5.19) | 106 (27.2) | 50 (8.7) | 3.82 (2.58- 5.64) |
| Has transportation15 | ||||||
| No | 123 (64.4) | 407 (62.7) | 1.00 | 272 (69.7) | 253 (43.8) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 68 (35.6) | 242 (37.3) | 0.61 (0.42–0.90) | 118 (30.3) | 324 (56.2) | 0.24(0.17- 0.34) |
| Lighting when electricity not available | ||||||
| Kerosene Lamp | ||||||
| No | 180 (94.2) | 620 (95.5) | 1.00 | 361 (92.6) | 553 (95.8) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 11 (5.8) | 29 (4.5) | 2.04 (0.85–4.88) | 29 (7.4) | 24 (4.2) | 1.87 (1.03–3.41) |
| Candles | ||||||
| No | 120 (62.8) | 497 (76.6) | 1.00 | 235 (60.3) | 428 (74.2) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 71 (37.2) | 152 (23.4) | 1.62 (1.11–2.36) | 155 (39.7) | 149 (25.8) | 2.02 (1.49–2.74) |
| Solar Lamp | ||||||
| No | 166 (86.9) | 484 (74.6) | 1.00 | 344 (88.2) | 395 (68.5) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 25 (13.1) | 165 (25.4) | 0.47 (0.28–0.79) | 46 (11.8) | 182 (31.5) | 0.27 (0.18–0.41) |
| Battery Lights | ||||||
| No | 82 (42.9) | 268 (41.3) | 1.00 | 153 (39.2) | 300 (52.0) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 109 (57.1) | 381 (58.7) | 0.86 (0.59–1.23) | 237 (60.8) | 277 (48.0) | 1.82 (1.35–2.45) |
| Oil Lamp | ||||||
| No | 183 (95.8) | 622 (95.8) | 1.00 | 375 (96.2) | 564 (97.7) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 8 (4.2) | 27 (4.2) | 1.30 (0.54–3.14) | 15 (3.8) | 13 (2.3) | 1.27 (0.54–3.00) |
| Generator for Lights | ||||||
| No | 191 (100.0) | 648 (99.8) | 387 (99.2) | 574 (99.5) | 1.00 | |
| Yes | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.2) | 3 (0.8) | 3 (0.5) | 1.48 (0.27–8.19) | |
| Burn Mosquito Coils | ||||||
| No | 129 (67.5) | 478 (73.7) | 1.00 | 224 (57.4) | 411 (71.2) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 62 (32.5) | 171 (26.3) | 1.15 (0.78–1.69) | 166 (42.6) | 166 (28.8) | 1.92 (1.42–2.59) |
| Burn Incense | ||||||
| No | 86 (45.0) | 188 (29.0) | 1.00 | 162 (41.5) | 158 (27.4) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 105 (55.0) | 461 (71.0) | 0.42 (0.28–0.61) | 228 (58.5) | 419 (72.6) | 0.49 (0.36–0.67) |
| Heat Home | ||||||
| No | 164 (85.9) | 555 (85.5) | 1.00 | 354 (90.8) | 501 (86.8) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 27 (14.1) | 94 (14.5) | 0.82 (0.49–1.39) | 36 (9.2) | 76 (13.2) | 0.61 (0.39–0.97) |
| Smoking status | ||||||
| Non Smoker | 145 (75.9) | 515 (79.4) | 1.00 | 142(36.4) | 339(58.8) | 1.00 |
| ≤ 8 pack-years | 14 (7.3) | 48 (7.4) | 1.36 (0.68–2.70) | 88 (22.6) | 113 19.6) | 1.81 (1.25–2.64) |
| > 8 pack-years | 32 (16.8) | 86 (13.3) | 1.38 (0.85–2.25) | 160 (41.0) | 125 (21.7) | 3.17 (2.28–4.42) |
| Other Household Smoker | ||||||
| No | 130 (68.1) | 483 (74.4) | 1.00 | 287 (73.6) | 471 (81.6) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 61 (31.9) | 166 (25.6) | 1.47 (1.00–2.17) | 103 (26.4) | 106 (18.4) | 1.63 (1.17–2.27) |
| Ventilation/Windows | ||||||
| Open Windows | 126 (66.0) | 460 (70.9) | 1.00 | 256 (65.6) | 434 (75.2) | 1.00 |
| < 4 Walls | 18 (9.4) | 44 (6.8) | 2.15 (1.08–4.31) | 36 (9.2) | 31 (5.4) | 1.95 (1.12–3.40) |
| Closed/No Windows | 47 (24.6) | 145 (22.3) | 1.26 (0.83–1.92) | 98 (25.1) | 112 (19.4) | 1.52 (1.09–2.13) |
| Use Smoke Hood | ||||||
| No | 169 (88.5) | 560 (86.3) | 1.00 | 351 (90.0) | 465 (80.6) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 22 (11.5) | 89 (13.7) | 0.58 (0.33–1.02) | 39 (10.0) | 112 (19.4) | 0.46 (0.30–0.69) |
| Days with insufficient food in last 6 months | ||||||
| No | 188 (98.4) | 645 (99.4) | 1.00 | 381 (97.7) | 573 (99.3) | 1.00 |
| Some Days | 3 (1.6) | 4 (0.6) | 1.92 (0.36–10.20) | 9 (2.3) | 4 (0.7) | 2.88 (0.83–10.00) |
| Drink Alcohol | ||||||
| Don't drink | 117 (61.3) | 457 (70.4) | 1.00 | 43 (11.0) | 112 (19.4) | 1.00 |
| Occasional Drink | 40 (20.9) | 136 (21.0) | 1.10 (0.72–1.70) | 75 (19.2) | 191 (33.1) | 1.07 (0.67–1.70) |
| 1+/wk for 6+Month | 34 (17.8) | 56 (8.6) | 2.12 (1.25–3.59) | 272 (69.7) | 274 (47.5) | 2.39 (1.57–3.64) |
| Family member with TB in last 10 Years | ||||||
| No | 149 (78.0) | 558 (86.0) | 1.00 | 309 (79.2) | 497 (86.1) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 32 (16.8) | 33 (5.1) | 4.11 (2.24–7.55) | 59 (15.1) | 22 (3.8) | 4.64 (2.69–8.01) |
| Refuse/DNK | 10 (5.2) | 58 (8.9) | 1.22 (0.54–2.77) | 22 (5.6) | 58 (10.1) | 0.49 (0.27–0.88) |
| Diabetes | ||||||
| No | 148 (77.5) | 570 (87.8) | 1.00 | 298 (76.4) | 484 (83.9) | 1.00 |
| Dr.-diagnosed diabetes | 12 (6.3) | 19 (2.9) | 2.31 (1.02– 5.25) | 32 (8.2) | 41 (7.1) | 1.02 (0.60–1.73) |
| HbA1c2265 7 | 31 (16.2) | 60 (9.2) | 2.05 (1.16–3.61) | 60 (15.4) | 52 (9.0) | 1.63 (1.05–2.54) |
| HIV doctor diagnosis | ||||||
| No | 188 (98.4) |
648 (99.8) |
1.00 | 382 (97.9) |
576 (99.8) | 1.00 |
| Yes | 3 (1.6) | 1 (0.2) | 7.58 (0.77–74.55) | 8 (2.1) | 1 (0.2) | - |
a.
Matching factor (rural VDCs, urban wards): no OR calculation.
b.
Transportation: family has bicycle, bullock cart, motorcycle, motorscooter, tractor or motor vehicle.