Table 2. Bivariate correlates of BMI ≥25 kg/m2 in a rural district of Zambia.
| BMI <25 kg/m2 | BMI ≥25 kg/m2 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (n = 505) | (n = 185) | ||||||
| n | % (95% CI) | n | % (95% CI) | p value | |||
| Socio-demographic characteristics | |||||||
| Gender | |||||||
| Male | 281 | 55.6 | (49.5,61.5) | 55 | 29.5 | (22.2,38.0) | <0.01 |
| Female | 224 | 44.4 | (38.5,50.5) | 130 | 70.5 | (62.0,77.8) | |
| Age group (year) | |||||||
| 25–44 | 339 | 67.2 | (62.6,71.5) | 90 | 48.7 | (38.2,59.4) | <0.01 |
| 45–64 | 166 | 32.8 | (28.5,37.4) | 95 | 51.3 | (40.6,61.8) | |
| Marital status | |||||||
| Single | 24 | 4.7 | (2.6,6.0) | 3 | 1.7 | (0.6,4.7) | 0.05 |
| Married | 411 | 81.5 | (76.6,85.5) | 145 | 78.8 | (71.9,84.4) | |
| Divorced/widowed | 70 | 13.8 | (10.9,17.5) | 36 | 19.5 | (14.0,26.5) | |
| Education level | |||||||
| ≤Primary | 387 | 76.7 | (69.1,82.9) | 125 | 68.0 | (52.9,80.0) | 0.07 |
| Secondary | 90 | 17.9 | (13.6,23.3) | 37 | 20.1 | (11.9,31.7) | |
| ≥ Tertiary | 27 | 5.4 | (2.2,12.6) | 22 | 12.0 | (6.5,21.0) | |
| Employment status | |||||||
| Employed | 63 | 12.4 | (8.4,18.0) | 23 | 12.3 | (6.8,21.2) | 0.09 |
| Self-employed | 361 | 71.6 | (64.7,77.6) | 119 | 64.6 | (53.7,74.2) | |
| Unemployed/retired | 81 | 16.0 | (12.1,20.8) | 43 | 23.1 | (16.7,31.0) | |
| Monthly income (US Dollar) | |||||||
| ≤50 | 252 | 49.9 | (43.0,56.8) | 75 | 40.4 | (30.4,51.2) | 0.07 |
| >50 | 253 | 50.1 | (43.2,57.0) | 110 | 59.6 | (48.8,69.6) | |
| Food security | |||||||
| Secure | 140 | 27.8 | (23.0,33.2) | 52 | 28.1 | (21.2,36.3) | 0.94 |
| Insecure | 364 | 72.2 | (66.8,77.0) | 133 | 71.9 | (63.7,78.8) | |
| Behavioral and psychological characteristics | |||||||
| Alcohol use | |||||||
| Never | 246 | 48.9 | (41.6,56.2) | 108 | 58.5 | (48.3,68.0) | 0.01 |
| ≤Few times per month | 147 | 29.2 | (23.1,36.2) | 58 | 31.2 | (22.5,41.5) | |
| ≥Few times per week or daily | 111 | 21.9 | (17.6,27.0) | 19 | 10.3 | (6.0,17.2) | |
| Smoking history | |||||||
| Never | 362 | 71.8 | (66.7,76.4) | 162 | 88.0 | (81.4,92.5) | <0.01 |
| Former smoker | 69 | 13.7 | (10.8,17.3) | 16 | 8.9 | (5.3,14.5) | |
| Current smoker | 73 | 14.5 | (11.1,18.7) | 6 | 3.1 | (1.3,7.3) | |
| Fruit and vegetable intake (fruits ≥once a week, vegetables daily) | |||||||
| Neither | 79 | 15.6 | (12.2,19.7) | 23 | 12.3 | (6.7,21.5) | 0.09 |
| Either | 244 | 48.4 | (42.9,53.8) | 76 | 40.9 | (32.3,50.2) | |
| Both | 182 | 36.0 | (29.7,43.0) | 86 | 46.8 | (35.8,58.1) | |
| Physical activity (activities of daily life and sports ≥once a week) | |||||||
| Neither | 38 | 7.5 | (4.8,11.7) | 16 | 8.9 | (5.6,14.0) | 0.01 |
| Either | 350 | 69.2 | (63.4,74.5) | 148 | 79.9 | (72.0,86.1) | |
| Both | 117 | 23.2 | (18.6,28.6) | 21 | 11.1 | (6.6,18.1) | |
| Salt intake (g/day) a | |||||||
| <5 | 370 | 73.3 | (69.1,77.1) | 153 | 83.0 | (75.0,88.8) | 0.06 |
| ≥5 | 120 | 23.7 | (19.6,28.4) | 29 | 15.6 | (9.9,23.8) | |
| Don't know | 15 | 3.0 | (1.5,5.8) | 3 | 1.4 | (0.3,5.8) | |
| Psychological distress | |||||||
| Low | 398 | 78.9 | (74.5,82.8) | 162 | 88.0 | (81.8,92.3) | 0.01 |
| High | 106 | 21.1 | (17.2,25.5) | 22 | 12.0 | (7.7,18.2) | |
| Clinical characteristics | |||||||
| Blood pressure b | |||||||
| Normal | 338 | 66.9 | (62.2,71.3) | 100 | 54.0 | (43.8,64.0) | 0.01 |
| High | 167 | 33.1 | (28.7,37.8) | 85 | 46.0 | (36.0,56.2) | |
| Waist-to-hip ratio | |||||||
| <0.85 | 369 | 73.1 | (67.7,77.9) | 75 | 40.7 | (32.5,49.3) | <0.01 |
| 0.85–0.89 | 96 | 18.9 | (15.3,23.2) | 61 | 32.9 | (25.4,41.4) | |
| ≥0.90 | 40 | 7.9 | (5.7,10.9) | 49 | 26.5 | (19.0,35.6) | |
| HbA1c (%) | |||||||
| <5.7 | 322 | 63.9 | (56.6,70.6) | 82 | 44.6 | (36.6,52.8) | <0.01 |
| 5.7–6.4 | 177 | 35.1 | (28.4,42.5) | 89 | 48.5 | (40.4,56.6) | |
| ≥6.5 | 5 | 1.0 | (0.4,2.8) | 13 | 7.0 | (4.1,11.7) | |
| Blood lipid profile a,c | |||||||
| Normal | 96 | 18.9 | (14.6,24.2) | 16 | 8.7 | (5.6,13.1) | <0.01 |
| Abnormal | 405 | 80.1 | (74.7,84.6) | 168 | 91.3 | (86.9,94.4) | |
| Missing data | 5 | 0.9 | (0.3,2.7) | 0 | 0 | ||
| Medical history (self-reported) | |||||||
| Hypertension | 31 | 6.2 | (4.1,9.4) | 24 | 12.8 | (8.3,19.2) | <0.01 |
| Diabetes | 1 | 0.2 | (0.0,1.5) | 4 | 2.2 | (0.9,5.6) | 0.01 |
| HIV infection | 60 | 11.9 | (8.8,15.9) | 11 | 6.1 | (3.4,10.9) | 0.05 |
Percentages might not sum to 100 due to rounding.
Some discrepancies in the numbers are also due to rounding.
CI: confidence interval
BMI: body mass index
a. "Missing data” and "Don't know" were excluded from statistical testing.
b. High blood pressure is defined as systolic blood pressure ≥140 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mmHg.
c. Abnormal blood lipid includes any abnormal measurements in total cholesterol (≥220 mg/dl), LDL-cholesterol (≥140 mg/dl), HDL-cholesterol (≤40 mg/dl), or triglycerides (≥150 mg/dl).