Table 1.

Reported work on innovative venom-independent immunization strategies for snake antivenom development.

Authors & Year	Immunization Strategy	Species	Target Toxin(s)	Antivenom	Challenge Toxin(s)	Effect(s) Neutralized	Ref.
Čurin-Šerbec et al., 1991	Synthetic epitope	Vipera ammodytes	Ammodytoxin A	Rabbit antiserum	Ammodytoxin A	Lethality	[70]
Čurin-Šerbec et al., 1994	Synthetic epitope	Crotalus durissus terrificus, Vipera ammodytes	Crotoxin and ammodytoxin A	Murine IgG, IgM	Crotoxin	Prolonged survival time	[68]
Dolimbek and Atassi, 1996	Synthetic epitope	Bungarus multicinctus	α-bungarotoxin	Murine antiserum	α-bungarotoxin	Lethality	[71]
Calderón et al., 1999	Synthetic epitope	Bothrops asper	Myotoxin II	Murine antiserum	Myotoxin II	Myotoxicity	[67]
Harrison et al., 2000	DNA	Bothrops jararaca	Jararhagin	Murine antiserum	B. jararaca venom	Myotoxicity	[79]
Harrison et al., 2002	DNA	Bothrops jararaca	Jararhagin	Murine antiserum	N/A	Not Evaluated	[80]
Pergolizzi et al., 2004	DNA	Naja kaouthia	α-cobratoxin	Murine antiserum	α-cobratoxin	Lethality	[85]
Wagstaff et al., 2006	DNA	Echis ocellatus	SVMPs	Murine IgG	E. ocellatus and Cerastes cerastes venom	Hemotoxicity	[83]
Ferreira et al., 2006	Synthetic epitope	Lachesis muta muta	Mutalysin II	Rabbit IgG	Mutalysin II	Hemotoxicity	[69]
Azofeifa-Cordero et al., 2008	DNA	Crotalus durissus durissus	P-III SVMP	Murine antiserum	C. d. durissus venom	Hemotoxicity	[84]
Leão et al., 2009	DNA	Micrurus corallinus	3FTx and PLA2s	Murine antiserum	N/A	Not evaluated	[95]
Cardoso et al., 2009	Recombinant mimotope	Bothrops neuwiedi	Neuwiedase	Murine antiserum	N/A	Not evaluated	[78]
Arce-Estrada et al., 2009	DNA	Bothrops asper	P-II SVMP	Equine antiserum	B. asper and C. d. durissus venom	Hemotoxicity	[82]
Suntrarachun et al., 2010	Recombinant toxin	Bungarus candidus	α and β-neurotoxins	Murine antiserum	B. candidus venom	Lethality	[73]
Machado de Avila et al., 2011	Synthetic mimotope	Lachesis muta	Mutalysin II	Rabbit antiserum	L. muta venom	Hemotoxicity	[77]
Ramos et al., 2016	DNA + Recombinant protein	Micrurus corallinus	3FTxs and PLA2	Murine antiserum	M. corallinus venom	Lethality	[66]
Cao et al., 2016	Recombinant protein	Deinagkistrodon acutus	SVSPs, SVMPs and PLA2s	Murine antiserum	D. acutus venom	Hemotoxicity	[72]
Clement et al., 2016	Recombinant toxin	Micrurus laticorallis	Cysteine-rich neurotoxins (Mlat1)	Rabbit antiserum	M. laticorallis venom	Not neutralizing	[96]
Hasson, 2017	DNA	Echis ocellatus	Disintegrin	Murine antiserum	Crotalus atrox, E. ocellatus and Bitis arietans venom	Hemotoxicity	[81]
de la Rosa et al., 2018	Recombinant toxin	Acanthophis spp., Oxyuranus spp., Walterinnesia spp., Naja spp., Dendroaspis spp. and Micrurus spp.	Type I α-neurotoxins	Rabbit antiserum	N/A	Not evaluated	[75]
Guerrero-Garzón et al., 2018	Recombinant toxin	Micrurus diastema	Type I α-neurotoxin D.H.	Rabbit antiserum	rD.H, MlatA1, and fraction F5 from M. diastema venom	Lethality	[74]