Table 1.

An overview of some of the effects that a gluten-free (GF) diet has on the immune system in animal models of type 1 diabetes (T1D).

Immunological Effects of a GF versus a STD Diet in Utero in NOD Mice	References
↑M2 macrophage gene expression in intestine.	[44]
↓DC (CD11b+CD11c+) numbers in PLN, MLN and spleen.	[44]
↓TH1 cell (IFNG+CD4+) numbers in spleen.	[67]
↓TH17 (RORGT) gene expression in colon.	[43]
↓gdTCR cell (IL22+gdTCR+) numbers in spleen.	[67]
↑Treg cell (FOXP3+CD4+) numbers in PLN.	[44]
↑T cell (α4β7+CD4+/CD8+) numbers in PLN.	[44]
↓proinflammatory cytokine gene expression in intestine.	[44]
↓T cells (gdTCR+, CD4+, CD8+ and FOXP3+) inflammatory cytokine profile in spleen, PLN, MLN and ILN.	[67]
Immunological Effects of a GF versus a STD Diet Postnatally in Animal Models of T1D	References
↓NK cell (activated) (NKG2D+NKp46+/DX5+) numbers in PLN (BALB/c mice) and spleen (NOD mice).	[68,69]
↓DC (CD11b+CD11c+) numbers in PLN and MLN (BALB/c mice).	[69]
↓DC (CD11b+CD11c+) numbers in colon (NOD mice).	[70]
↓DC (activated) (CD40+/CCR7+/MHCII+ on CD11c+) numbers in different lymphoid organs (BALB/c mice).	[69]
↑DC (tolerogenic) (CD103+CD11b+) numbers in PLN (BALB/c mice).	[69]
↓TH cell (CD4+) numbers in colon (NOD mice).	[70]
↓TH1 cell (IFNG+CD4+) numbers in MLN (BB rats).	[71]
↓TH17 cell (IL17+CD4+) numbers in PLN (BALB/c mice).	[72]
↓TH17 cell (IL17+CD4+) numbers in colon (NOD mice).	[70]
↓T cell (CD3+) proinflammatory profile (BALB/c mice).	[73]
↓CTL (activated) (NKG2D+CD8+) numbers in PLN (NOD mice).	[69]

↑: increased; ↓: decreased.