Table 3.
Intake of food groups, energy, and nutrients, including supplements, in relation to recommendations.
| Gestational Week 18–22 | Gestational Week 32–36 | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Recommendations | GDM Women n = 40 |
Non-GDM Women n = 662 |
GDM Women n = 40 |
Non-GDM Women n = 661 |
|||||||||||
| 25th | Median | 75th | 25th | Median | 75th | p * | 25th | Median | 75th | 25th | Median | 75th | p * | ||
| Food groups, per day or week | |||||||||||||||
| Fruit and vegetables g/day | ≥500 † g/day | 391 | 542 | 652 | 404 | 531 | 710 | 0.430 | 363 | 494 | 670 | 376 | 521 | 712 | 0.604 |
| Vegetables g/day | ≥250 † g/day | 150 | 233 | 284 | 127 | 200 | 296 | 0.303 | 105 | 177 | 271 | 117 | 177 | 256 | 0.898 |
| Red and processed meat g/week | ≤500 † g/week | 423 | 588 | 964 | 462 | 646 | 864 | 0.771 | 383 | 590 | 842 | 438 | 613 | 808 | 0.721 |
| Fish and shellfish g/week | 300–450 † g/week | 198 | 288 | 427 | 204 | 337 | 498 | 0.479 | 174 | 263 | 403 | 189 | 298 | 468 | 0.266 |
| Fatty fish g/week | 200 † g/week | 8 | 49 | 116 | 25 | 64 | 123 | 0.157 | 0 | 28 | 83 | 17 | 57 | 116 | 0.014 |
| Energy and macronutrients per day | |||||||||||||||
| Total energy intake kcal | 1963 | 2164 | 2561 | 1755 | 2086 | 2451 | 0.238 | 1826 | 2213 | 2605 | 1741 | 2060 | 2421 | 0.208 | |
| Total fat E% | 25–40 E% ‡ | 29 | 34 | 37 | 29 | 33 | 36 | 0.690 | 29 | 33 | 37 | 29 | 33 | 36 | 0.587 |
| Protein E% | 10–20 E% ‡ | 15 | 16 | 17 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 0.962 | 14 | 15 | 17 | 14 | 16 | 20 | 0.456 |
| Carbohydrates E% | 45–60 E% ‡ | 45 | 49 | 52 | 45 | 48 | 51 | 0.796 | 45 | 50 | 53 | 46 | 49 | 52 | 0.880 |
| Added sugar E% | <10 E% ‡ | 4 | 7 | 9 | 5 | 6 | 9 | 0.548 | 6 | 6 | 9 | 5 | 7 | 9 | 0.962 |
| Alcohol E% | Abstinence § | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.930 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.612 |
| Fiber g | 25–35 g ‡ | 25 | 28 | 33 | 23 | 28 | 33 | 0.453 | 23 | 27 | 36 | 22 | 27 | 33 | 0.600 |
| Micronutrients per day | |||||||||||||||
| Cholesterol (mg/mL) | 193 | 274 | 331 | 205 | 266 | 325 | 0.937 | 205 | 255 | 288 | 197 | 252 | 312 | 0.867 | |
| Vitamin A RAE ‖ | 800 µg ¶ | 839 | 1386 | 1686 | 879 | 1195 | 1617 | 0.640 | 744 | 1162 | 1258 | 838 | 1142 | 1542 | 0.925 |
| Vitamin D (µg) | 10 µg ¶ | 6.0 | 9.2 | 13.7 | 5.5 | 8.6 | 14.1 | 0.712 | 7.0 | 10.2 | 14.0 | 5.2 | 8.3 | 13.9 | 0.166 |
| Tocopherol (mg) | 10 µg ¶ | 10.4 | 17.5 | 22.2 | 11.7 | 16.7 | 22.6 | 0.955 | 11.8 | 17.8 | 25.4 | 10.8 | 16.4 | 22.0 | 0.220 |
| Thiamin (mg) | 1.5 mg ¶ | 1.4 | 1.6 | 2.3 | 1.3 | 1.6 | 2.0 | 0.204 | 1.4 | 1.7 | 2.4 | 1.2 | 1.5 | 2.0 | 0.008 |
| Riboflavin (mg) | 1.6 mg ¶ | 1.6 | 1.9 | 2.6 | 1.4 | 1.9 | 2.4 | 0.329 | 1.6 | 2.0 | 2.9 | 1.4 | 1.8 | 2.4 | 0.028 |
| Folate (µg) | 400 µg # | 244 | 314 | 581 | 232 | 313 | 453 | 0.515 | 223 | 299 | 443 | 209 | 270 | 362 | 0.062 |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 85 mg ¶ | 111 | 164 | 220 | 110 | 153 | 217 | 0.548 | 106 | 158 | 252 | 99 | 145 | 202 | 0.241 |
| Calcium (mg) | 900 mg ¶ | 758 | 930 | 1260 | 718 | 919 | 1154 | 0.481 | 853 | 1003 | 1239 | 711 | 932 | 1155 | 0.068 |
| Fe (mg) | 15 mg ** | 9.0 | 11.0 | 13.1 | 8.9 | 10.9 | 14.0 | 0.932 | 8.5 | 11.0 | 18.6 | 8.6 | 10.7 | 14.2 | 0.236 |
| Magnesium (mg) | 280 mg ¶ | 301 | 354 | 403 | 288 | 341 | 410 | 0.542 | 308 | 359 | 431 | 285 | 342 | 408 | 0.867 |
* Differences between groups analyzed with Mann-Whitney U-test. † Norwegian Council of Nutrition Recommendation of 2011. ‡ Nordic Nutrition Recommendations (NNR) of 2012. § NNR (2012), reference applies to pregnant women. ‖ Retinol activity equivalents (RAE); 1 RAE: 1 µg retinol = 12 µg β-carotene. ¶ NNR (2012), references apply to pregnant and breastfeeding women. # NNR (2012), reference applies to women of reproductive age. ** NNR (2012), reference applies to women in age groups 18–30 and 31–60 years.