. 2018 Nov 21;16(11):459. doi: 10.3390/md16110459

Table 3.

Bioactive functions of marine algal monosaccharides and oligosaccharides.

DP	Name	Mode of Linkage	Function	Mechanism	Ref.
1	D-Glucose	-	Anti-melanogenesis	In vitro (B16 cells) TYR activity (↓) Melanin content (-)	[73]
	L-AHG	-	Anti-melanogenesis	In vitro (B16F10 cells or HEMs) Melanin content (↓), TYR activity (-)	[74,75]
	D-AHG	-	Anti-inflammation	In vitro (Raw264.7 cells) LPS-induced NO level (↓)	[75]
	D-Galactose	-	Melanogenesis	In vitro (B16 cells) Melanin content (-) TYR activity (↑)	[73,75]
2	Agarobiose	Gal_β₁→₄AHG	Antioxidant	In vitro DPPH radical (↓)	[76]
			Anti-inflammation	In vitro (RAW264.7 cell) LPS-induced level of NO, PGE2 (↓) Expression of HO-1 (↑) Protein level of iNOS (↓)	[77]
				In vitro (Human Monocytes) LPS-induced Cytokines TNF-α, IL-1b, IL-6 (↓)	[77]
				In vitro (Human Monocytes) LPS-induced NO level (↓) mRNA level of COX-2, mPGES-1 (↓)	[78]
	Neoagarobiose	AHG_α1→₃Gal	Anti-melanogenesis	In vitro (B16 cells) Melanin content (↓) Cellular TYR activity (↓)	[79,80]
	Neoagarobiose	AHG_α1→₃Gal	Moisturizing	Higher moisture-absorption and moisture-retention ability than HA	[79,80]
3	Agarotriose	Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal	N.a.	-	-
3	Neoagarotriose	AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG	N.a.	-	-
4	Agarotetraose	Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG	Antioxidant	In vitro DPPH radical (↓)	[76]
	Agarotetraose	Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG	Anti-inflammation	In vitro (RAW264.7 cell) LPS-induced level of NO (↓)	[77]
	Neoagarotetraose	AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal	Anti-melanogenesis	In vitro (B16 cells or HEMs) Melanin content (↓) Cellular TYR activity (↓)	[74,81]
5	Agaropentaose	Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal	N.a.	-	-
5	Neoagaropentaose	AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG	N.a.	-	-
6	Agarohexaose	Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG	Antioxidant	In vitro DPPH radical (↓)	[76]
			Anti-inflammation	In vitro (RAW264.7 cell) LPS-induced level of NO (↓)	[77]
			Anti-inflammation	In vitro (Human Monocytes) LPS-induced NO level (↓) mRNA level of COX-2, mPGES-1 (↓)	[78]
	Neoagarohexaose	AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal	Anti-melanogenesis	In vitro (B16 cells or HEMs) Melanin content (↓) Cellular TYR activity (↓)	[74,81,82]
7	Agaroheptaose	Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal	N.a.	-	-
7	Neoagaroheptaose	AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG	N.a.	-	-
8	Agarooctaose	Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG	Antioxidant	In vitro DPPH radical (↓)	[76]
8	Neoagarooctaose	AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal	N.a.	-	-
9	Agarononaose	Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal	N.a.	-	-
	Neoagarononaose	AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG	N.a.	-	-
10	Agarodecaose	Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG	Antioxidant	In vitro DPPH radical (↓)	[76]
	Neoagarodecaose	AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal_β₁→₄AHG_α1→₃Gal	N.a.	-	-
-	Mixture of AOSs with DP 2, 4, 6 and 8	[Gal_β₁→₄AHG]_n	Anti-melanogenesis	In vitro (B16 cells) Melanin content (↓) Cellular TYR activity (↓)	[82]
			Anti-skin cancer	In vivo (ICR mice) DMBA/TPA-induced tumor incidence (↓), number of papilloma (↓), TPA-induced ear edema (↓) TPA-induced PGE2 (↓)	[78]
			Anti-inflammation	In vitro (Human monocytes) LPS-induced NO level (↓)	[78]

AOSs: agaro-oligosaccharides, B16(F10) cells: mouse melanoma B16(F10) cells, COX-2: cyclooxygenase-2, D-AHG: 3,6-anhydro-D-galactose, DMBA: 12-dimethylbenz [a] anthracene, DP: degree of polymerization, DPPH: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, HA: hyaluronan, HEMs: human epidermal melanocytes, HO-1: heme oxygenase-1, IL: interleukin, iNOS: Iiducible nitric oxide synthase, L-AHG: 3,6-anhydro-L-galactose, LPS: lipopolysaccharides, mPGES-1: microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1, N.a.: not applicable, NO: nitric oxide, PGE2: prostaglandin E2, TNF: tumor necrosis factor, TPA: 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate, TYR: tyrosinase, (-): not effective.