Table 2.

Modulation of immune responses by vitamin E in humans.

Subjects	Age	Amount and Duration of Supplementation	Form of Vitamin E Used	Effects on Immune Function	References
Young (n = 5) and senior athletes (n = 5)	18–25, 35–57	4.6 ± 0.3 mg/100 mL of vitamin E-enriched beverage 5 days/week for 5 weeks	α-tocopherol acetate	↑15LOX2, TNF-α expression	Capo et al. 2016 [20]
Healthy women (n = 108)	18–25	400 mg TRF/day for 56 days	d-α-tocotrienol	↑IL-4 (TT vaccine), IFN-γ (ConA)	Mahalingam et al. 2011 [21]
			d-γ-tocotrienol
			d-δ-tocotrienol	↓IL-6 (LPS)
			d-α-tocopherol
Healthy men and women (n = 19, 34)	20–50	200 mg/day for 56 days	α-tocopherol	↔IL-4, IFN-γ production (ConA)	Radhakrishnan et al. 2009 [22]
Adult males and young boys (n = 18)	25–30, 13–18	300 mg/day for 3 weeks	dl-α-tocopheryl acetate	↓Lymphocyte proliferation (PHA)	Prasad 1980 [23]
				↔DTH
				↓Bactericidal activity
Institutionalized adult males and females (n = 103)	24–104	200, 400 mg/day for 6 months	α-tocopherol acetate	↔Ab development to influenza virus	Harman and Miller 1986 [24]
Healthy elderly males and females (n = 32)	≥60	800 mg/day for 30 days	dl-α-tocopheryl acetate	↑Lymphocyte proliferation (ConA)	Meydani et al. 1990 [25]
				↑DTH
				↑IL-2 production (ConA)
				↓PGE2 production (PHA)
Eldery males and females (n = 74)	≥65	100 mg/day for 3 months	dl-α-tocopheryl acetate	↔Lymphocyte proliferation (ConA, PHA)	De Waart et al. 1997 [26]
				↔IgG, IgA levels
Healthy elderly males and females (n = 88)	≥65	60, 200, 800 mg/day for 235 days	dl-α-tocopherol	↑DTH and antibody titer to hepatitis B with 200, 800 mg	Meydani et al. 1997 [27]
Healthy elderly males and females (n = 161)	65–80	50, 100 mg/day for 6 months	dl-α-tocopheryl acetate	↑No. of positive DTH reaction with 100 mg	Pallast et al. 1999 [28]
				↑dDiameter of induration of DTH reaction in a subgroup supplemented with 100 mg
				↔IL-2 production
				↓IFN-γ production
Healthy young adults (n = 31) and premature infants (n = 10)	24–31	600 mg/day for 3 months40 mg/kg body weight for 8–14 days		↓Chemiluminescence	Okano et al. 1990 [29]
Cigarette smoker (n = 60)	33 ± 4	900 IU/day for 6 weeks		↓Chemiluminescence	Richards et al. 1990 [30]
Healthy males (n = 40)	24–57	200 mg/day for 4 months	all-rac-α-tocopherol	Prevented fish-oil-induced suppression of ConA mitogenesis	Kramer et al. 1991 [31]
Healthy elderly (n = 40)	>65	100, 200, or 400 mg/day for 3 months	dl-α-tocopherol	↑DTH (maximal diameter) in 100, 200, 400 mg groups	Wu et al. 2006 [32]
				↑Lymphocyte proliferation (ConA) in 200 mg group
Sedentary young and elderly males (n = 21)	22–29, 55–74	800 IU (727 mg)/day for 48 days	dl-α-tocopherol	↓IL-6 secretion	Cannon et al. 1991 [33]
				↓Exercise-enhanced IL-1β secretion

ConA, concanavalin A; DTH, delayed type hypersensitivity; IFN-γ, interferon-γ; 15LOX2, 15-lipoxygenase-2; PGE₂, prostaglandin E₂; PHA, phytohemagglutinin; TRF, tocotrienol-rich fraction; TT vaccine, tetanous toxoid vaccine.