Table 1.
Characteristics of included studies.
| Source (year) | Sample Size, Sample Characteristics, Sampling Method | Study Design | Dietary Assessment Method | Study Excluded Over-/Under Reporters of Energy Intake (Yes/No) | Approach to Determine Adequacy of Macronutrient Intake | Macronutrient (Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat) Food Sources Identified | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| FAO food balance sheet (2013) [5] | n/a | n/a | Estimate per capita values for the supply of all food commodities (in kg/person/year) and the calories, protein, and fat content | n/a | n/a | Carbohydrate, protein, fat | |||
| Nationwide studies | Energy | Protein | Fat | Carbohydrate (CHO) | |||||
| Mahmud et al. (2015) [6] | MANS 2014 sample | Secondary analysis of MANS 2014 data | Single 24-h recall | --- | Prevalence of adults that met the RNI for energy | Prevalence of adults that met RNI for protein | Prevalence of adults that met RNI for fat | Prevalence of adults that met RNI for CHO | --- |
| MANS 2014 (2014) [7] | 2973 adults (1378 men, 1595 women) aged 18 to 59 y (not pregnant or lactating, no specific diet due to illness); multistage stratified cluster sampling | Cross-sectional survey | Single 24-h recall | Yes | Median (kcal/day), % RNI | Median g/day, % RNI | Median g/day, % energy from fat | Median g/day, % energy from CHO | Carbohydrate, protein |
| Asma (2014) [8] | Secondary analysis of MANS 2003 data; 3063 adults aged 18 to 59 year; multistage stratified cluster sampling | Cross-sectional survey | Semiquantitative FFQ (126 items) | Yes | Mean (kcal/day), % RNI | Mean g/day, % RNI | Mean g/day, % energy from fat | Mean g/day, % energy from CHO | --- |
| Mirnalini et al. (2008) [9] | 7349 adults (51% men, 49% women) aged 18 to 59 year; stratified random sampling | Cross-sectional survey | Single 24-h diet recall | No | Mean (kcal/day), % RNI of mean; median; 25th and 75th percentiles | Mean (g/day), % RNI of mean; median; 25th & 75th percentiles | Mean (g/day); median; 25th & 75th percentiles | Mean g/day; median; 25th and 75th percentiles | --- |
| Small studies | |||||||||
| Kaur et al. (2016) [10] | 101 adult volunteer Punjabis aged 18 to 59 y from central region of Malaysia; convenience sampling | Cross-sectional | 2-day diet record | No | --- | --- | Median (g/day), % energy from fat | Median (g/day), % energy from CHO | --- |
| Norsham et al. (2015) [11] | 450 women aged 30 to 65 year who participated in health screening in Klang Valley, Malays (68%), Chinese (25.1%), Indians (6.1%); convenience sampling | Cross-sectional | Diet history questionnaire (DHQ) | No | Mean (kcal/day), % of subjects meeting/not meeting RNI for energy | Mean (g/day), % of subjects with protein intake 10–35% energy; >35% energy | Mean (g/day), % of subjects with fat intake 25–35% energy; >35% energy | Mean (g/day); % of subjects with CHO intake 55 to 75% energy; >75% energy | --- |
| Shyam et al. (2015) [12] | 77 nondiabetic women with previous gestational diabetes, aged 20 to 40 year; | Experimental parallel group design | 3-day diet records at baseline | No | ---- | ---- | % energy from fat | % energy from CHO | --- |
| Karupaiah et al. (2013) [13] | 128 women (45 Malays, 56 Chinese, 27 Indians) aged 19 to 65 year; random selection of clusters and blocks, convenience sample of volunteer households | Cross-sectional | 3-day diet records for two weekdays, one weekend | Yes | Mean (kcal/day), % RNI | Mean (g/day), % RNI | --- | --- | --- |
| Shahril et al. (2013) [14] | 380 university students from four public universities in East Coast of Malaysia, aged 18 to 24 year, 47 males, 333 females; generally healthy; random sampling | Experimental parallel group design (only baseline data were used) | Diet history in the last 7 days | Yes | --- | --- | % energy from fat | % energy from CHO | Carbohydrate, protein, fat |
| Yee et al. (2013) [15] | 73 healthy Chinese premenopausal women aged 30 to 45 year from Klang Valley; convenience sampling | Cross-sectional | Single 24-h recall | No | Mean (kcal/day) vs. RNI = 2180 kcal/day | Mean (g/day) vs. RNI = 55 g/day | Mean (g/day), % energy from fat | Mean (g/day), % energy from CHO | --- |
| Abdull Hakim et al. (2012) [16] | 200 adult students from Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Universiti of Selangor (UNISEL), Management and Science University (MSU) aged 18 to 24 year, 90 males, 110 females; not pregnant, bedridden, or having major physical activity problem; convenience sampling | Cross-sectional | Single 24-h recall | No | Mean (kcal/day), % of subjects with intake < RNI, meet RNI, >RNI | Mean (g/day), % of subjects with intake < RNI, meet RNI, >RNI | Mean (g/day), % of subjects with intake < RNI, meet RNI, >RNI | --- | Carbohydrates (fruits & vegetables) |
| Ismail et al. (2012) [17] | 88 adults aged 18 to 30 year with and without acne vulgaris attending a tertiary hospital Dermatology Clinic in Kuala Lumpur without chronic disease; purposive sampling | Case control, cross-sectional | 3-day food diary (two weekdays, one weekend) | No | --- | % energy from protein | % energy from fat | % energy from CHO | --- |
| Eng & Moy (2011) [18] | 151 Malay adults, 39 males, 112 females aged 49.9 ± 4.1 year participating in a worksite Wellness Programme in Kuala Lumpur; random sampling | Cross-sectional | 3-day diet record (two weekdays, one weekend) | No | --- | --- | Mean (g/day) for total fat, saturated fat (SFA), & polyunsaturated fat (PUFA), % energy from fat, SFA, PUFA | --- | Fat (saturated, monounsaturated (MUFA), PUFA) |
| Gan et al. (2011) [19] | 584 students aged 18 to 24 year from four universities in Klang Valley, 237 males, 347 females; multistage stratified random sampling | Cross-sectional | Two 24-h recalls for 1 weekday, 1 weekend | Yes | Mean (kcal/day), % RNI, % of subjects with intake < RNI & ≥RNI | Mean (g/day), % RNI, % of subjects with energy from protein at <10%, 10–15%, >15% | Mean (g/day), % energy from fat, % of subjects with energy from fat <20%, 20–30%, >30% | Mean (g/day), % energy from CHO, % of subjects with energy from CHO at <55%, 55–70%, >70% | Carbohydrate, protein |
| Shahar et al. (2011) [20] | 70 healthy men aged 40 to 80 year, without past medical history of prostate cancer and not suffering from any unstable chronic diseases, recruited from Kuala Lumpur Hospital and Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre in Klang Valley; purposive sampling | Case control, cross-sectional | Validated diet history questionnaire | No | --- | --- | Mean (g/day), % energy from fat | Mean (g/day), % energy from CHO | --- |
| Sulaiman et al. (2011) [21] | 301 Malay women aged 21 to 49 year, not pregnant or lactating, living in rural (n = 151) and urban (n = 150) areas in Kelantan; multistage random sampling | Cross-sectional | Single 24-h recall | No | Mean (kcal/day), % RNI | Mean (g/day), % RNI | Mean (g/day), % energy from fat | Mean (g/day), % energy from CHO | Carbohydrate, protein |
| Asma et al. (2010) [22] | 150 married couples from Selangor aged 20 y and above; not practicing any special diet; purposive sampling | Cross-sectional | Two 24-h recalls | No | --- | --- | Mean (g/day), % energy from fat and saturated fat | --- | Carbohydrate, fat (saturated) |
| Lee et al. (2010) [23] | 115 women aged 18 to 59 year working in Klang Valley (six offices of the Employees Provident Fund); purposive sampling | Cross-sectional | Diet history over 7 days | Yes | --- | --- | Mean (g/day), % energy from fat | Mean (g/day), % energy from CHO | --- |
| Pon et al. (2006) [24] | 360 disease-free women aged ≥ 45 year, non-HRT users with intact uterus; living in a suburb in Kuala Lumpur; convenience sampling for a multicenter study | Cross-sectional | Quantitative FFQ | Yes | Mean (kcal/day), % RDA | Mean (g/day), % RDA | --- | --- | Carbohydrate, protein |
n/a—Not applicable; --- No information.