Table 5.

Key activities for supporting self-efficacy according to social cognitive theory [52]

Determinants of self-efficacy	Presence in GLA:D Back	Activity in GLA:D
Performance accomplishments	Positive experiences with movement	Focus point of exercise delivery
Vicarious experience	Observing and interacting with fellow patients	Group-based intervention
Social persuasion	Verbal encouragement during exercises	Motivating patients to explore movement rather than correcting performance
Physiological feedback	Providing non-threatening explanations for pain provocation during movement	Integrating education on pain mechanisms with exercise supervision (Additional file 1)