Table 2.
Clinical studies investigating the safety, bioavailability and effects of astaxanthin on oxidative stress.
| Study | Study population (n = subject numbers) | Dosage of astaxanthin | Study design | Duration of supplementation | Effects of astaxanthin |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Iwamoto et al. 2000 [68] | Volunteers (n = 24) | Different doses: 1.8, 3.6, 14.4, 21.6 mg/day | Open labelled | 2 weeks | - Reduction of LDL oxidation |
| Osterlie et al. 2000 [91] | Middle aged male volunteers (n = 3) | 100 mg | Open labelled | Single dose | - Astaxanthin taken up by VLDL chylomicrons |
| Mercke Odeberg et al. 2003 [92] | Healthy male volunteers (n = 32) | 40 mg | Open labelled parallel | Single dose | - Enhanced bioavailability with lipid based formulation |
| Spiller et al. 2003 [86] | Healthy adults (n = 35) | 6 mg/day (3 × 2 mg tablets/day) | Randomised, double blind, placebo controlled | 8 weeks | - Demonstrated safety assessed by measures of blood pressure and biochemistry |
| Coral-Hinostroza et al. 2005 [83] | Healthy adult males (n = 3) | 10 mg and 100 mg | Open labelled | Single dose or 4 weeks | - Cmax 0.28 mg/L at 11.5 h at high dose and 0.08 mg/L at low dose |
| - Elimination half life 52+/− 40 hours | |||||
| - Z -isomer selectively absorbed | |||||
| Karppi et al. 2007 [89] | Healthy non-smoking Finnish males (n = 40) | 8 mg/day | Randomised, double blind, placebo controlled | 12 weeks | - Intestinal absorption adequate with capsules |
| - Reduced levels of plasma 12 and 15 hydroxy fatty acids | |||||
| - Decreased oxidation of fatty acids | |||||
| #Parisi et al. 2008 [93] | Non-advanced age related macular degeneration (n = 27) | 4 mg/day | Randomised controlled trial open labelled no placebo | 12 months | - Improved central retinal dysfunction in age related macular degeneration when administered with other antioxidants |
| Miyawaki et al. 2008 [87] | Healthy males (n = 20) | 6 mg/day | Single blind, placebo controlled | 10 days | - Decreased whole blood transit time (improved blood rheology) |
| Rufer et al. 2008 [82] | Healthy males (n = 28) | 5μg/g salmon flesh (wild vs. aquacultured) | Randomised, double blind, placebo controlled | 4 weeks | - Bioavailability initially better with aquacultured salmon but equivalent at day 28 |
| - Isomer (3, S, 3′ S ) greater in plasma compared with isomer proportion in salmon flesh | |||||
| Uchiyama et al. 2008 [94] | Healthy volunteers at risk of metabolic syndrome n = 17 | 8 mg twice daily | Uncontrolled open-labelled | 3 months | - Significantly decreased HbA1c and TNF-alpha |
| - Significantly increased adiponectin | |||||
| Park et al. 2010 [95] | Healthy females (n = 14) | 0, 2, 8 mg/day | Randomised, double blind, placebo controlled | 8 weeks | - Decreased plasma 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine after four weeks |
| - Lower CRP after four weeks in those taking 2 mg/day | |||||
| Yoshida et al. 2010 [96] | Hypertriglyceridemic males and females n = 61 | 0, 6, 12, 18 mg/day | Randomised double blind placebo controlled trial | 12 weeks | - Significantly decreased triglycerides and increased HDL cholesterol |
| - Significantly increased adiponectin | |||||
| Choi et al. 2011 [97] | Overweight and obese males and females n = 23 | 5 mg or 20 mg/day | Randomised double blinded trial | 3 weeks | - Significantly decreased oxidative stress biomarkers (MDA, ISOP, SOD and TAC) |
| *Piermarocchi S et al . 2011 [81] | Non-advanced age related macular degeneration (n = 145) | 4 mg/day | Randomised controlled trial open labeled, no placebo | 2 years | Stabilized or improved visual acuity, contrast sensitivity and visual function |
* This is an extension of the Parisi V study [93] #.