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. 2016 Nov 11;21(11):1512. doi: 10.3390/molecules21111512

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© 2016 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Mesenchymal stem cell self-renewal and differentiation. Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) and Wingless (Wnt) inhibitor Dickkopf-1 (DKK-1) contribute to MSC self-renewal; whereas signalling through PI3K-Akt-mTOR, Wnt, Hedgehog and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) is involved in MSC differentiation into the three mesenchymal lineages and furthermore trans-differentiation into myoblasts and neurons. Pathways that inhibit the differentiation into a specific lineage are marked with crosses (e.g., Wnt prevents adipogenesis).