. 2018 Nov 26;6:573. doi: 10.3389/fchem.2018.00573

Table 3.

Glycerol acetalization with different aldehydes and ketones in batch and continuous processes.

Type		Catalyst	Optimum condition	Con^c (%) Y^d (%)	Description	References
Homogenous		PTSA	MR^aGl/F^b = 1:1T = 80°C, t = 9 h	Y_Acetal = 80	–	Ruiz et al., 2010
		PTSA	MR Gl/Ac^e = 1:4t = 12 h	Con = 82	–	Suriyapradilok and Kitiyanan, 2011
		PTSA	MR Gl/Ben^f = 1:2T = 140°C, t = 15 min	Con = 67	Microwave assisted, Power = 600 W; Con = 95% without catalyst	Pawar et al., 2014
		H₂SO₄	MR Gl/F = 1.5/1T = 100°C, t = 4 h	Y_Acetal = 89	–	Coleman and Blankenship, 2010
Heterogeneous	Zeolites	Zeolite beta	MR Gl/F = 1/1 T = 100°C, t = 2 h	Y_Acetal = 25	–	Ruiz et al., 2010
		Zeolite beta	MR Gl/Ac = 1/2 T = 70°C, t = 1 h	Con = 90	–	da Silva and Mota, 2011
		H beta zeolite	MR Gl/Ac = 1/2 T = 25°C, t = 2 h	Con = 86	–	Manjunathan et al., 2015
		Zeolite USY	MR Gl/Bu^g = 1/2.5 T = 70°C, t = 4 h	Con = 72	–	Serafim et al., 2011
		Zeolite BEA		Con = 87
		Zeolite ZSM		Con = 28
		MMT K10	MR Gl/Ben = 1/2 T = 140°C, t = 15 min	Con = 84	Microwave assisted, Power = 600 W	Roldan et al., 2009
				Con = 95	No catalyst
		Nb₅-HUSY	MR Gl/Ac = $\frac{1}{2}$ T = 40°C, Cat = 2 wt%	Con = 66S_Solketal = 98	–	Ferreira et al., 2018
		MK-10S_MW	T = 40°C, t = 2 h, Cat = 5 wt%, MR Gl/F = 1/1	Con = 68S_Solketal = 66	Microwave synthesis enhanced reaction conversion	Gutiérrez-Acebo et al., 2018
		[5%V]Si-ITQ-6	T = 60°C, t = 120 min, Ac/Gl = 3/1, Cat = 0.02 g	Con = 100S_Solketal = >95	Acetone washing could reduce the catalyst deactivation after each run	Vieira et al., 2018
		Zr-MO-KIT-6	T = 50°C, t = 4 h, Ac/Gl = 8/1, Cat = 0.05 g	Con = 85.8S_Solketal = 97.8	–	Li et al., 2018a
		Immobilize sulfonic acid on to silica	T = 120°C, t = 8 h	Con = 78	Argon atmosphere in the presence of Benzaldehyde	Adam et al., 2012
		Zeolite betaCP814E	MR Gl/Ac = 1/6 T = 35°C, t = 4 h	Con = 82%	–	Maksimov et al., 2011
		Zeolite betaCP811T1		Con = 85%
		Zeolite HY		Con = 37%
Heterogeneous	Zeolites	Hierarchical Zeolite (H/BEA₅)	T = 70°C, t = 240 min, MR G/F = 1/1.25, Cat = 10%	Con = 78S_Solketal = 85	–	Sonar et al., 2018
		6.8v-MCM-41	T = 60 °C, t = 60 min, Ac/Gl = 6.5, Cat = 20 mg	Con = 92S_Solketal = 95	–	Abreu et al., 2018
		ITQ-2	T = 83°C, HMF/Gl = 1/2, Cat = 20 wt%, Si/Al = 15	Con = 98S_5R+6R = 100	Products ratio 5R/6R = 2.8	Arias et al., 2018
		MCM-41		Con = 99S_5R+6R = 100	Products ratio 5R/6R = 3.9
	Heteropoly acid	Cs_2.5H_0.5PW₁₂O₄₀	T = 25°C, MR Gl/Ac = 1/6, Cat = 0.25 g/batch, t = 15 min	Con = 95S_Solketal = 98	–	Chen et al., 2018a
		Cs_2.5/KIT-6	T = 70°C, MR Gl/F = 1/1.2, C_s = 3.83 g/batch, t = 24 h	Con = 95Y_GF = 60	–	Chen et al., 2018b
	Acid exchange resins	Nafion SAC 13	MR Gl/Ben = 1/2 T = 140°C, t = 15 min	Con = 81	Microwave assisted, Power = 600 W, Con = 95% without catalyst	Trifoi et al., 2016
		Dowex	MR Gl/Bu = 1/2.5 T = 70°C, t = 4 h	Con = 66	–	Serafim et al., 2011
		Amberlyst 36	MR Gl/F = 1/1, T = 100°C, t = 4 h	Y = 55	–	Ruiz et al., 2010
		Amberlyst 15	MR Gl/Ac = 1/2 T = 70°C, t = 1 h	Con = 95	–
		Amberlyst 15	MR Gl/Ac = 1/2 T = 50°C, P = 8.0 bar t = 6 h	Con = 95	–
		Amberlyst 47	MR Gl/F = 2/1 T = 80–100°C, t = 3 h	Con = 75	–	Agirre et al., 2011
		Amberlyst 47	MR Gl/Ac = 2/1 t = 10–50°C, t = 4 h	Con = 90
		Amberlyst 47	MR Gl/But^h = 3/1 T = 80°C, t = 100 min	Con = 95	–	Guemez et al., 2013
			MR Gl/But = 0.5/1 T = 60 °C, t = 4 h	Con = 100
		Amberlyst 15	MR Gl/F = 1/2 T = 75°C, t = 2 h	Con = 100%	Reactive distillation process	Hasabnis and Mahajani, 2014
Heterogeneous	Metal-based	Ni-activated carbon	MR Gl/Ac = 1/8 T = 45°C, t = 3 h	Con = 98	3% reduction of catalytic activity after the 4th run	Khayoon and Hameed, 2013
		Zr-activated carbon		Con = 67
		X%Ni-Y%Zr/ activated carbon		Con = 100
		Ni-MWCNT ⁱ	MR Gl/Ac = 1/6 T = 40°C, t = 3 h	Con = 96	5% reduction of catalytic activity after 4th run	Khayoon et al., 2014
		Pt-TNT	T = 50°C, t = 24 h, Ac/Gl = 1/1, Cat = 130 mg	Con = 46.7S_Solketal = 10	–	Gomes et al., 2018
		M-AlPO₄M-ZnAlPO₄M-CuAlPO₄M-NiAlPO₄M-CoAlPO₄	MR Gl/Ac = 1/8 T = 80°C, t = 1 h	Con = 75	80% reduction of M-NiAlPO₄ activity after the 5th run	Zhang et al., 2015
		PTNT	T = 50 °C, MR G/Ac = 1/1, t = 6 h	Con = 40S_Soketal = 20	–	Gomes et al., 2018
		SO₄/SnO₂	Gl-Fur^j	Con = 99	–	Mallesham et al., 2014
		TiO₂-SiO₂	MR Gl/Ac = 1/4 T = 40–90°C, t = 3 h	Con = 98	${Sel}_{5 - memberedring}^{k}$ = 95%	Fan et al., 2012
		Mo_X/TiO₂-ZrO₂	MR Gl/Ben = 1/1 T = 60–100°C, t = 90 min	Con = 74	–	Sudarsanam et al., 2013
		Niobium oxyhydroxyde	MR Gl/Ac = 1/4 T = 40°C, t = 1 h	Con = 74	–	Souza et al., 2014, 2015
		Nb₂O₅	MR Gl/Ac = 1/3 T = 70 °C, t = 6 h	Con = 80	Up to 4 time reusability	Nair et al., 2012
		HC-SZ ( ${SO}_{4}^{2}$ /ZrO₂ coated on cordierite honeycomb monolith)	T = 60°C, MR G/Ac = 1/3, Cat = 0.2 g	Con = 96, Y_Solketal = 94	–	Vasantha et al., 2018
		Meso-SnO₂-350	T = 60°C, t = 30 min, Ac/Gl = 1/1, Cat = 0.125 g	Con = 51.3S_Solketal = 98	Higher selectivity to the solketal in the presence of Acetone compared to the Furfuraldehyde and benzaldehyde	Manjunathan et al., 2018
Heterogeneous	Other catalysts	Rare earth triflate	Gl-Ac T = 25 °C	Con = 100	–	Pierpont et al., 2015
		Organic-inorganic hybrid catalyst	MR Gl/Ac = 1/6 T = 30°C, t = 3 h	Con = 94	Water resistance	Sandesh et al., 2015
		(L)Ru(II)@SBA-15	T = 25°C, t = 20 min, MR Al/MeOH = 1/250	Con = 100S_Solketal = 100	–	Lazar et al., 2018
		80LS20PS450H⁺	T = 40°C, Cat = 5 wt%, MR G/Ac = 1/6, t = 60 min	Con = 90	S_Soketal = 51–53% obtained over Furfural and Methyl levulinate instead of acetone	Konwar et al., 2017
		PrSO₃H-SBA-15-400	T = 90°C, t = 8 h, F/Gl = 1.5/1, Cat = 0.2 g	S_Solektal = 60	–	Li et al., 2018b
		Carbon-based catalyst	T = 28°C, t = 30 min, Ac/Gl = 4/1, Cat = 3 wt%	Con = >78S_Solketal = 73	–	Mantovani et al., 2018
		Co(II)!!!!(Co(III)_1.25)Al_2−0.75)O₄	T = 130°C, t = 3 h, 2 g Gl and 12.72 g AC, Cat = 0.1 g	Con = 69.2S_Solketal = 98.6	–	Li et al., 2018c
		Purolite PD206	T = 40.66°C, P = 42.31 bar, MR Gl/Ac = 1/4.97, Feed flow rate = 0.49 ml/min, Cat = 0.5 g	Normalized exergy destraction = 6.18%, Universal Exergetic efficiency = 90.36%	Optimization and modeling of continuous acetalization process with subcritical acetone	Aghbashloa et al., 2018
		KU-2	MR Gl/Ac = 1/6 T = 60°C, t = 4 h	Con = 85%	–	Maksimov et al., 2011
		Purolite PD 206	MR Gl/Ac = 5/1 T = 20°C, P = 120 bar	Con = 95%	Acetone-solvent	Shirani et al., 2014

MR, Molar Ratio;

F, Formaldehyde;

Con, Conversion (%);

Y, Yield (%);

Ac, Acetone;

Ben, Benzaldehyde;

Bu, Butanal;

But, Butiraldehyde;

ⁱ

MWCNTs, Multiwall carbon nano-tubes;

Fur, Furfural;

^kSel, Selectivity.