Table 1.
The characteristics of the participants in the study and associations with dysbiosis
| Participants’ characteristicsa | Dysbiosis | Dysbiosis | Association with DI b | Association with ADI b | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yes (no 59) | No (31) | p-values | |||
| Gender (female/male) | 49 (83%) / 10 (17%) | 27 (87%) / 4 (13%) | 0.76 (1) | 2.9 (1.3) / 3.4 (1.5); p = 0.17 (2) | −0.9 (2.8) / −0.5 (2.7); p = 0.66 (2) |
| Age (years) | 44.0 (8.6) | 46.0 (8.6) | 0.31 (2) | r = −0.078; p = 0.47 | r = −0.375; p < 0.001 |
| Body weight (kg) | 120.5 (15.2) | 122.1 (18.3) | 0.66(2) | r = −0.064; p = 0.55 | r = 0.009; p = 0.93 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 42.1 (3.7) | 41.2 (3.2) | 0.30 (2) | r = 0.022; p = 0.84 | r = −0.186; p = 0.08 |
| Smoking (never/previously /daily) | 19 (32%) / 31 (53%) / 9 (15%) | 17 (55%) / 12 (39%) / 2 (6%) | 0.046 (3) | r = 0.195; p = 0.07 | r = −0.230; p = 0.030 |
| Coffee (cups/day) | 2.6 (2.3) | 3.5 (2.4) | 0.08 (2) | rho = −0.240; p = 0.026 | rho = 0.163; p = 0.13 |
| Food intolerance (65) | 33/43 (77%) | 17/22 (77%) | 1.00 (1) | 3.0 (1.3) / 3.0 (1.5); p = 0.95 (2) | −1.1 (2.5) / −1.7 (3.0); p = 0.45 (2) |
| Diabetes (87) | 18/56 (32%) | 2/31 (7%) | 0.007 (1) | 3.7 (1.1) / 2.8 (1.3); p = 0.005(2) | 0.5 (3.3) / −1.1 (2.5); p = 0.057 (2) |
| Hypothyreosis (86) | 7/56 (13%) | 3/30 (10%) | 1.00 (1) | 3.5 (1.3) / 2.9 (1.3); p = 0.19 (2) | −0.1 (2.8) / −0.8 (2.8); p = 0.46 (2) |
| IBS (88) | 17/59 (29%) | 8/29 (28% | 1.00 (1) | 3.1 (1.3) / 3.0 (1.4); p = 0.60 | −1.6 (2.8) / −0.4 (2.7); p = 0.063 (2) |
| IBSSS (86) | 120 (0–389) | 99 (0–339) | 0.43 (4) | rho = 0.110; p = 0.31 | rho = −0.304; p = 0.004 |
| Metformin | 15/59 (25%) | 1/31 (3%) | 0.009 (1) | 3.9 (1.0) / 2.8 (1.3); p = 0.002(2) | 1.1 (3.1) / −1.2 (2.5); p = 0.002(2) |
| Thyroxin (89) | 5 / 59 (9%) | 2/30 (7%) | 1.00 (1) | 3.6 (1.3) / 2.9 (1.3); p = 0.23 (2) | 0.1 (2.9) / −0.9 (2.8); p = 0.33 (2) |
| Statins (88) | 8 / 58 (14%) | 5 / 13 (17%) | 0.76 (1) | 2.5 (1.3) / 3.1 (1.3); p = 0.19 (2) | −0.3 (2.3) / −0.9 (2.8); p = 0.47 (2) |
| CRP (88) | 6 (0–27) | 5 (1–28) | 0.34 (4) | rho = 0.076; p = 0.48 | rho = −0.034; p = 0.75 |
| Zonulin (ng/ml) (85) | 71 (36) | 60 (30) | 0.14 (2) | r = 0.179; p = 0.10 | r = −0.125; p = 0.25 |
| Total energy (kJ) | 10,387 (3875) | 10,777 (4324) | 0.66 (2) | r = −0.044; p = 0.68 | r = −0.236; p = 0.025 |
| Water (unit) | 44 (21) | 42 (19) | 0.65 (2) | r = 0.030; p = 0.78 | r = −0.251; p = 0.017 |
| Carb. beverages w/ sugar (unitc) | 0.0 (0–7.9) | 0 (0–2.6) | 0.99 (4) | rho = −0.016; p = 0.89 | rho = −0.220; p = 0.037 |
| Total NNS (unitc) | 4.9 (0–43) | 1 (0–22) | 0.002 (4) | rho = 0.387; p < 0.001 | rho = −0.353; p = 0.001 |
| Carb. beverages w/NNS (unitc) | 1.1 (0–40) | 0 (0–20) | 0.002 (4) | rho = 0.378; p < 0.001 | rho = −0.268; p = 0.011 |
| Non-carb. Beverages w/NNS (unitc) | 0.4 (0–32) | 0 (0–8) | 0.026 (4) | rho = 0.270; p = 0.010 | rho = −0.240; p = 0.023 |
| Coffee/tea w/NNS (unitc) | 0.0 (0–27) | 0 (0–14) | 0.73 (4) | rho = −0.047; p = 0.66 | rho = −0.151; p = 0.16 |
| Protein (g/day) | 110 (36) | 110 (36) | 0.94 (2) | rho = −0.053; p = 0.62 | rho = −0.156; p = 0.14 |
| Fat (g/day) | 95 (42) | 103 (56) | 0.45 (2) | rho = −0.048; p = 0.66 | rho = −0.235; p = 0.026 |
| Carbohydrates (g/day) | 273 (119) | 280 (150) | 0.80 (2) | rho = 0.016; p = 0.88 | rho = −0.200; p = 0.058 |
| Starch (g/day) | 133 (54) | 131 (46) | 0.83 (2) | rho = 0.035; p = 0.74 | rho = −0.263; p = 0.012 |
| Sugar (g/day) | 25 (1–268) | 32 (5–632) | 0.99 | rho = 0.012; p = 0.91 | rho = −0.221; p = 0.037 |
DI Dysbiosis Index, ADI Alternative Dysbiosis Index, NNS Non-Nutritive Sweeteners. The results are given as mean (SD); median (range); number (%). aThe number of subjects is given in brackets if less than 90. bThe order of the results are yes/no.c One unit is 100 ml beverages with NNS or 2 tablets NNS for coffee/tea
(1): Fisher’s exact test; (2) t-test; (3) chi-square, linear-by-linear; (4) Exact Mann-Whitney; rho: Spearman’s rho; r = Pearson Correlation test
Italicized p-values are statistically significant