Table 1.

Main significant immunomodulatory and antinflammatory effects of Echinacea in different in vitro studies.

Source	Model & Concentration	Effects	Ref.
In vitro studies
Arabinogalactan	Isolated mice macrophages; 3.7–500 μg/mL	↑ Macrophages activation ↑ IL-1, TNF-α, IFN-$\mathsf{\beta }$	[28]
E. purpurea extracts	Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells; ≥0.1 μg/mL	↑ NK function	[29]
E. purpurea extracts	Bone Marrow-derived Dendritic Cells; 400 mg/mL	↑ JNK ↑ p38 MAPK, NF-κB	[31]
E. purpurea extracts	Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells; ≥10 μg/mL	↑ DCs differentiation ↓ HLA-DR, CD32	[32]
E. Purpurea polysaccharide enriched extract	Bone Marrow-derived Dendritic Cells; 100 μg/mL	↑ Macrophages activation, CCR7 ↑ CD80, CD86, MHCII ↑ IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12p70, TNF-α, NO ↑ Phagocytosis and intracellular bactericidal activity	[33]
Alkylamides from E. purpurea	Human whole blood, 5 nM–5 μM	↑ Cannabinoid receptor type 2 ↓ TNF-α,	[38]
Alkylamides from E. purpurea	Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells; 10 μg/mL	↑ Cannabinoid receptor type 2 ↓ TNF-α, ↑ IL-10	[39]
Alkylamides from E. purpurea	Jurkat T cells, 330 ng/mL	↑ PPARγ	[40]
E. Angustifolia extract	Porcine leukocytes; 50 μM (for its major constituent)	↓ Cyclooxygenase, 5-lipoxygenase	[42]
E. purpurea extracts	Jurkat T cells, 10–250 μg/mL	↑ IL-2, IFNγ	[44]