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d-GalN-induced liver injury. d-GalN trigger the continuous development of hepatocyte injury by inducing cell stress via inflammation, metabolic disorder, and oxidative stress, resulting in necrosis, apoptosis, autophagy, and liver injury. UDP: uridine diphosphate; UTP: uridine triphosphate; UDPase: UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase; GSH: glutathione; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor α.
