Table 1.

Pro-inflammatory effects of ACh on parenchymal and leukocytes via muscarinic receptors.

Type of cells	Type of receptors	Actions	Reference
Parenchymal cells
Epithelial cells	M1, M2, M3	Inducing the release of IL-8	Profita et al., 2008
		Stimulating the release of LTB4	Profita et al., 2011
		Augmenting IL-17A-induced release of IL-8	Anzalone et al., 2016
Fibroblasts	M1, M2, M3	Augmenting IL-1β-induced release of IL-6 and IL-8	Costa et al., 2014
Smooth muscle cells	M2, M3	Stimulating the release of IL-6 and IL-8	Gosens et al., 2009
Leukocytes
Macrophages	M1, M2, M3, M4, M5	Stimulating the release of LTB4	Sato et al., 1998; Buhling et al., 2007; Koarai et al., 2012
Neutrophils	M2, M3, M4, M5	Stimulating the release of IL-8	Milara et al., 2016
		Augmenting inflammatory mediator and matrix metalloproteinase release induced by LPS and cigarette smoke extract	Milara et al., 2016
Mast cell	M1, M3, M4, M5	Inhibiting the release of histamine	Reinheimer et al., 2000
Lymphocytes	M1, M2, M3, M4, M5	Augmenting the production of antibodies and cytokines	Fujii et al., 2007