Table 1.
Demographic and clinical characteristics of the studies included in the meta-analysis.
| References | Pts (males) | Age (y)* | PD onset (y)* | PD duration (y)* | Education (y)* | H&Y* | UPDRS-III (ON)* | Depression as exclusion criteria? | Antidepressant use (N) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cilia et al. (34) | ICD+: 8 (7) ICD–: 21 (11) |
ICD+: 60.7 (7.5) ICD–: 60.1 (9.4) |
NR | ICD+: 6.25 (2) ICD–: 6.1 (2.4) |
NR | ICD+: 2.1 (0.74) ICD–: 2 (0.53) |
ICD+: 18.1 (9.3) ICD–: 20.2 (5.6) |
NO (GDS available) | NO |
| Joutsa et al. (37) | ICD+: 10 ICD–: 10 |
ICD+: 61.5 (45-7)¶ ICD–: 61.5 (53-7)¶ |
ICD+: 53 (40-64)¶ ICD–: 57 (47-63)¶ |
ICD+: 7 (3-9)¶ ICD–: 5 (1-8)¶ |
NR | All patients were in stages 2 to 3 | ICD+: 31 (24-41)¶ ICD–: 32 (19-49)¶ |
NO | NR |
| Lee et al. (56) | ICD+: 11 (8) ICD–: 11 (6) |
ICD+: 56.6 (8.7) ICD–: 58.5 (7.3) |
ICD+: 46.4 (8.7) ICD–: 49.2 (7.3) |
ICD+: 10.1 (6.9) ICD–: 9.4 (2.3) |
NR | ICD+: 2.3 (0.4) ICD–: 2.1 (0.5) |
ICD+: 14.2 (11.0) ICD–: 15.3 (7.6) |
YES | NO |
| Payer et al. (35) | ICD+: 11(9) ICD–: 21 (11) |
ICD+: 58.9 (7.8) ICD–: 63.3 (8.7) |
NR | ICD+: 12.1 (3.7) ICD–: 7.4 (4.5) |
ICD+: 15.5 (2.7) ICD–: 15.1 (1.8) |
NR | ICD+: 33.1 (10.2) ICD–: 28.1 (10.6) |
YES | YES: ICD+: 1 ICD–: 0 |
| Premi et al. (30) | ICD+: 21 (16) ICD–: 63 (38) |
ICD+: 65.8 (8.4) ICD–: 68.5 (11.0) |
NR | ICD+: 1.9 (2.2) ICD–: 1.7 (2.4) |
NR | ICD+: stage 1 (N = 4); stage 1.5 (N = 3); stage 2 (N = 5); stage 2.5 (N = 5); stage 3 (N = 4) ICD–: stage 1 (N = 8); stage 1.5 (N = 13); stage 2 (N = 18); stage 2.5 (N = 17); stage 3 (N = 7) |
ICD+: 16.5 (7.2) ICD–: 14.6 (7.7) |
NO | YES: ICD+: 2 ICD–: 10 |
| Stark et al. (36) | ICD+: 17 (11) ICD–: 18 (13) |
ICD+: 60.9 (6.6) ICD–: 62.7 (10.1) |
NR | ICD+: 5.7 (3.2) ICD–: 6.1 (4.5) |
NR | NR | NR | YES | NR (unlikely considering the exclusion criteria) |
| Steeves et al. (31) | ICD+: 7 (5) ICD–: 7 (6) |
ICD+: 47-72§ ICD–: 51-74§ |
NR | ICD+: 7.4 (3.2) ICD–: 5.6 (2.5) |
NR | ICD+: 2 (0.6) ICD–: 1.9 (0.7) |
OFF medication: ICD+: 25.2 (4.5) ICD–: 20.2 (5.4) |
NO | NR |
| Voon et al. (44) | ICD+: 15 (9) ICD–: 15 (9) |
ICD+: 55.1 (8.9) ICD–: 60.1 (8) |
NR | ICD+: 7.5 (5.4) ICD–: 5.5 (5.2) |
NR | ICD+: 3† ICD–: 3† |
NR | NR | NR |
| Wu et al. (39) | ICD+: 17 ICD–: 9 |
S-ICD: 62.3 (3.9)|| M-ICD: 58.1 (2.8)|| ICD–: 60.2 (3.2)|| |
S-ICD: 51.7 (4)|| M-ICD: 43.8 (3.4)|| ICD–: 50.3 (3.4)|| |
S-ICD: 10.6 (2)|| M-ICD: 14.3 (11.2)|| ICD–: 9.9 (2.1)|| |
NR | NR | OFF medication: S-ICD: 42.1 (3.8)|| M-ICD: 41 (3.5)|| ICD–: 32.8 (3)|| |
NO (but BDI scores available) | NR |
| References | Antipsychotic use (N) | Drugs that may affect PET binding exclusion criterion | Patients under DA treatment (N/Total) | LEDD (mg) | Dementia excluded | ICD | |||
| Total LEDD* | LD-LEDD* | DA-LEDD* | Diagnosis** | Type: N | |||||
| Cilia et al. (34) | NO | YES | NR | ICD+: 831.2(293.6) ICD–: 852.3 (301.1) |
NR | ICD+: 240.6 (118) ICD–: 251.6 (121) |
YES (MMSE < 24) | Clinical interview (DSM-IV-TR criteria); SOGS | 2 PG; 5 PG+HS; 3 PG+BE; 2 PG+CS |
| Joutsa et al. (37) | NR | NO but none used nicotine or had current substance-use disorder | ICD+: 9/10 ICD–:9/10 |
ICD+: 635 (250–876)¶ ICD–: 826 (210-1127)¶ |
NR | ICD+: 171.5 (0–280)¶ ICD–: 200 (0-320)¶ |
NO | Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders | 4 PG;1 PG+subclinical HS; 1 HS; 2 HS+subclinical BE; 1 HS+subclinical CS; 1 BE |
| Lee et al. (48) | NO | YES | NR | ICD+: 914.4 (338.7) ICD–: 925.2 (458.4) |
NR | ICD+: 217.9 (175.3) ICD–: 153.2 (110.7) |
YES (MMSE < 24) | Clinical interview (DSM-IV-TR criteria); modified MIDI | 1 HS; 2 PG; 3 CS+BE; 1 CS+HS+BE; 1 CS+HS+BE+PG; 2 CS+BE+punding; 1 HS+BE+PG |
| Payer et al. (35) | NR (unlikely considering the exclusion criteria) | YES. Current treatment with DA was exclusionary as it may interfere with ligand binding. | ICD+: 0/11 ICD–: 0/21 |
NR | ICD+: 813.6 (318.5) ICD–: 426.2 (144.6) |
NR | YES (MMSE < 26) | clinical interview according to proposed criteria; SOGS; DSM-IV-based gambling questionnaire; sexual addiction screening test | 10 PG; 3 HS; 1 CS. Only 5 patients meeting ICD criteria at the time of the study |
| Premi et al. (30) | NR | Antidepressant therapy, if present, was suspended 3 weeks before the assessment | ICD+: 19/21 ICD–: 30/63 |
ICD+: 594.2 (388.6) ICD–: 359.1 (280.1) |
NR | ICD+: 282.1 (227.9) ICD–: 174.4 (97.2) |
NO but MMSE scores reported | QUIP-rs | 12 BE; 7 PG; 6 HS; 2 punding; 33 DDS + other ICDs; 1 DDS |
| Stark et al. (36) | NR (unlikely considering the exclusion criteria) | Patients excluded if they were prescribed psychoactive drugs that could alter dopamine receptor availability | ICD+: 17/17 ICD–: 18/18 |
ICD+: 673.8 (440) ICD–: 693.9 (406.3) |
NR | ICD+: 103.9 (65.1) ICD–: 135.4 (76.4) |
YES (MoCA < 22) | Clinical interview (DSM-IV-TR criteria); QUIP-rs; | 11 HS; 11 BE; 4 CS; 12 hobbyism |
| Steeves et al. (31) | NR | NR | ICD+: 7/7 ICD–: 7/7 |
ICD+: 856 (407) ICD–: 756 (400) |
NR | ICD+: 138 (172) ICD–: 167 (113) |
YES | G-SAS | 7 PG |
| Voon et al. (44) | NR | Patients were required to stop any drug that would bind to the DAT seven days prior to the scan | ICD+: 13/15 ICD–: 10/15 |
ICD+: 785.8 (402.7) ICD–: 852.1 (520.4) |
NR | ICD+: 325.8 (156.1) ICD–: 384.3 (212.8) |
NR | clinical interview | 4 HS; 5 CS; 3 PG; 6 punding |
| Wu et al. (39) | NR | NR | NR | S-ICD: 782.3 (83.4)|| M-ICD: 724 (99)|| ICD–: 831.9 (119.2)|| |
S-ICD: 538 (83.4)|| M-ICD: 268.5 (84.9)|| ICD–: 666.3 (129)|| |
S-ICD: 244.3 (51.4)|| M-ICD: 244 (55.4)|| ICD–: 165.6 (48.8)|| |
YES (MMSE < 24) | semi-structured interview | 4 HS; 3 PG; 1 CS+three ICDs; 2 CS+two ICDs; 7 CS +one ICD; |
BDI, Beck depression inventory; BE, binge eating; CS, compulsive shopping; DA, dopamine agonist; DAT, dopamine transporter; DDS, Dopamine dysregulation syndrome; DSM-IV, diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fourth edition; DSM-IV-TR, diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fourth edition, text revision; G-SAS, Gambling symptom assessment scale; GDS, Geriatric depression scale; H&Y, Hoehn & Yahr score; HS, hypersexuality; ICD, impulse control disorder; ICD+, PD patients with ICD; ICD–, PD patients without ICD; LEDD, levodopa equivalent daily dosage (mg); LD, levodopa; M-ICD, multiple ICD; MIDI, Minnesota impulsive disorder interview; MMSE, mini mental state examination; MoCA, Montreal cognitive assessment; N, number of patients; NR, not reported. PD, Parkinson's disease; PET, positron emission tomography; PG, pathological gambling; Pts, patients; QUIP-rs, questionnaire for impulsive-compulsive disorders in Parkinson's disease rating scale; Ref, reference number; S-ICD, single ICD; SOGS, South Oaks gambling screen; UPDRS-III, unified Parkinson's disease rating scale part III (motor subscale) score; y: years. *Mean (SD) unless otherwise stated. ¶Median (range). §Range. †Median. ||Mean (SEM). **Questionnaire or method use to screen and/or diagnose ICD.