Table 1.
Serological biomarkers for lung cancer detection.
| Biomarker | Function | Reference |
|---|---|---|
| Carcinoembryonic antigen | Cell adhesion, regulation of signal transduction and innate immunity. | Hammarstrom, 1999; Kuespert et al., 2006; Tiernan et al., 2013 |
| Serum Amyloid A | Synthesize several cytokines, bind and activate cell surface receptors and activate inflammasome cascade. | Urieli-Shoval et al., 2000; Eklund et al., 2012 |
| Haptoglobin β chain | Immunomodulatory in nature which also shows hemoglobin-binding capacity and is α-sialoglycoprotein in an acute phase. | Kang et al., 2011; Vanuytsel et al., 2013 |
| Anti-insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-2 | Modulates insulin-like growth factor actions by preventing its binding to the receptor along with regulation of growth hormone-stimulated growth, cell proliferation and adhesion. | Polticelli et al., 2008; Shen et al., 2012 |
| Complement component 9 proteins | Forms pores on the membrane of pathogens. Also plays a role in inducing tolerance, destruction of apoptotic cells and clearance of immune complexes. | Dudkina et al., 2016; Xiao et al., 2017 |
| Endoglin | Regulation of ALK1-dependent adhesive and proliferative effects. | Lebrin et al., 2004; Koleva et al., 2006 |
| Midkine | Growth factor which plays a role in promoting growth, gene expression, migration, survival, reproduction, and repair. | Maeda et al., 1999; Yoshida et al., 2001 |
| Tissue Inhibitors of Metallo-proteinases | Bind to the Matrix metalloproteinases and inactivate them. They also play a role in degradation of Extracellular Matrix. | Lose et al., 2005; Louhelainen et al., 2010 |
| Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor | Regulates the initiation phase of blood coagulation by hindering factor Xa and the tissue factor/factor VIIa complex. Matrix metalloproteinase, plasmin, cathepsin G, trypsin, and plasma kallikrein are some of the enzymatic activities negatively regulated by Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor. | Augustsson et al., 2014; Li et al., 2017 |
| Squamous Cell Carcinoma Antigen | Represses the natural killer cell induced apoptosis, stimulates synthesis of matrix metalloproteinase-9 production whereas suppression of squamous cell carcinoma antigen induces cell cancer invasion and relocation in disease expression of E-cadherin. | Murakami et al., 2010; Catanzaro et al., 2011 |
| Tumor M2- pyruvate kinase | Extremely active tetrameric protein which on exposure to oncoproteins, converts to less active dimeric form which is an important step for tumor metabolism. | Sithambaram et al., 2015; He et al., 2016 |
| CYFRA 21-1 | A cytokeratin-19 fragment which is used as a tumor marker. | Okamura et al., 2013 |
| C-reactive protein | Produced during injury and employs anti-arthritic, anti-pneumococcal, anti-atherosclerotic, and anti-amyloidogenic functions as well. | Salzberg et al., 2006; Thirumalai et al., 2017 |
| Human Plasma Kallikrein | Participates in inflammation and intrinsic blood coagulation system and also regulates vascular responses. | Liu W. et al., 2016; Ottaiano et al., 2017 |
| Methylated DNA | Hallmark of cancer which occurs very early during cancer development. | Fujita et al., 2014; Widschwendter et al., 2017 |
| Intercellular Adhesion Molecule 1 | Promotes adhesion, transendothelial migration and immunological synapse formation. | de Paula et al., 2017; Marzolla et al., 2017 |
| Pro gastrin releasing peptide | A specific tumor marker. Mitogenic activity of proGRP has also been demonstrated. | Shibayama et al., 2001; Oremek and Sapoutzis, 2003; Oh et al., 2016 |
| Urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor | Plays a vital role in plasminogen activation and fibrinolysis. Also involved in cardiovascular diseases. | Semina et al., 2016; Yousif et al., 2018 |
| Progesterone Receptor Membrane Component 1 | Essential for ovulation and viability of granulosa cells of preovulatory follicles. In vitro studies have shown its role in tumor proliferation. | Peluso et al., 2008; Kowalik et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2017 |
| Matrix metalloproteinase 1 | Plays a major role in inflammatory processes and extracellular matrix breakdown and has been associated with tumor invasion and metastasis. | Sauter et al., 2008; Sousa et al., 2014 |
| Epithelial cell adhesion molecule. | Functions as a cell-cell adhesion molecule in order to maintain cell polarity. Also involved in the proliferation and differentiation. Used as a marker for stem/progenitor cells. | Terris et al., 2010; Wen et al., 2018 |
CYFRA 21-1, Cytokeratin 19 fragments; ALK1, Activin-like kinase receptor 1.