Table 1.
Study characteristics and main results of included studies
| Author and country | Study design | Participants | Relevant comorbidities | Exercise frequency and duration | HG training prescription | Total training tension-time product | SBP training response | Secondary outcomes reported | Risk of bias (TESTEX) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Allen et al. [59] USA |
Cohort | Men (n = 14), young (26 ± 5.7 years) | 5/week for 4 weeks | One contraction every 4 s unilateral (non-dom) at 60% MVC for 20 min | 360,000 | − 4 mmHg (non-sig) | Diastolic BP, Heart rate, Arterial health and function (FMD), Autonomic Nervous system indicators (HRV) |
7/15 | |
| Alomari et al. [60] no country noted | Cohort | Men (n = 11), young (24 ± 4.8 years) | 5/week for 4 weeks | 300 × 2 s unilateral (non-dom) HG contractions at 60% MVC, separated by 2-s rest | 720,000 | − 2 mmHg (non-sig) | Diastolic BP, Heart rate, Arterial health and function (reactive hyperamic blood flow + vascular resistance) |
5/15 | |
| Badrov et al. [45] Canada | RCT—traditional | Men (n = 6), aged (67 years), Women (n = 6), aged (63 years) |
All hypertensive and/or receiving pharmacotherapy for at least 4 months | 3/week for 10 weeks | 4 × 2 min bilateral HG contractions at 30% MVC, separated by 1-min rest | 432,000 | Men: − 7 mmHg (grouped change sig), Women: − 9 mmHg (grouped change sig) |
Diastolic BP, Heart rate, Autonomic nervous system indicators (CV reactivity) |
11/15 |
| Badrov et al. [38] Canada | RCT—traditional | Women (n = 12), young (23 ± 4 years) | 3/week for 8 weeks | 4 × 2 min unilateral (non-dom) HG contractions at 30% MVC, separated by 4-min rest | 345,600 | − 6 mmHg (sig) | Diastolic BP, Heart rate, Autonomic nervous system indicators (HRV), Arterial health and function (reactive hyperamic blood flow) |
13/15 | |
| Women (n = 11), young (27 ± 6 years) | 5/week for 8 weeks | 4 × 2 min unilateral (non-dom) HG contractions at 30% MVC, separated by 4-min rest | 576,000 | − 6 mmHg (sig) | |||||
| Badrov et al. [54] Canada | Cohort | Men (n = 9), young (21 ± 2 years), Women (n = 11), young (23 ± 4 years) |
3/week for 8 weeks | 4 × 2 min unilateral (non-dom) HG contractions at 30% MVC, separated by 4-min rest | 345,600 | Men: − 9 mmHg (sig), Women: − 6 mmHg (sig) |
Diastolic BP, Arterial health and function (FMD) |
7/15 | |
| Baross et al. [44] * United Kingdom |
RCT—traditional | Men (n = 6) and women (n = 16), young (20.7 ± 1.6 years) | 4/week for 6 weeks | 3 × 10 s bilateral HG contractions at 20% MVC, separated by 10-min rest | 14,400 | − 4.9 mmHg (sig) | Diastolic BP | 6/15 | |
| Bentley et al. [49] Canada | Cohort | Women (n = 17), aged (61.6 ± 4 years) | At least pre-hypertensive or receiving pharmacotherapy | 4/week for 8 weeks | 32 × 5 s unilateral (non-dom) HG contractions at max MVC, separated by 5-s rest | 512,000 | − 5.2 mmHg (sig) | Diastolic BP, Heart rate, Autonomic nervous system indicators (HRV and CV reactivity), Arterial health and function (PWV and AIx) |
9/15 |
| Carlson et al. [41] * Australia | RCT—“sham” | Men and women (n = 18), aged (52 ± 8 years) | At least pre-hypertensive or receiving pharmacotherapy | 3/week for 8 weeks | 4 × 2 min unilateral (non-dom) HG contractions at 30%MVC, separated by 3-min rest | 345,600 | − 7 mmHg (sig) | Diastolic BP, Heart rate |
11/15 |
| Men and women (n = 20), aged (54 ± 8 years) | At least pre-hypertensive or receiving pharmacotherapy | 3/week for 8 weeks | 4 × 2 min unilateral (non-dom) HG contractions at 5%MVC, separated by 3-min rest | 57,600 | − 2 mmHg (non-sig) | ||||
| Dawson et al. [42] no country noted | RCT—traditional | Men (n = 8), aged (65 years), Women (n = 1), young (47 years) |
All patients required transradial catheterization for upcoming coronary angiography/angioplasty | 3/week for 6 weeks | 900 × 1 s unilateral (catheterized arm) HG contractions at 40% MVC, separated by 1-s rest | 648,000 | Men: + 1 mmHg (grouped change non-sig), Women: + 16 mmHg (grouped change non-sig) |
Heart rate, Arterial health and function (FMD) |
5/15 |
| Dobrosielski et al. [51] USA | Cohort | Men (n = 12), aged (81 ± 5 years) | 4/week for 4 weeks | 300 × 1 s unilateral (non-dom) HG contractions at 60% MVC, separated by 3-s rest | 288,000 | − 2 mmHg (non-sig) | Diastolic BP, Heart rate, Arterial health and function (brachial artery reactivity and FMD) |
8/15 | |
| Garg et al. [39] * India | Cohort | Men (n = 16) and women (n = 14), young (29.8 ± 6.3 years) | 3/week for 10 weeks | 5 × 3 min unilateral (dominant) HG contractions at 30% MVC, separated by 5-min rest | 810,000 | − 9.87 mmHg (sig) | Diastolic BP | 3/15 | |
| Goessler et al. [52] * Belgium | RCT—traditional | Men and women (n = 19), young (33.1 ± 2.1 years) | 7/week for 8 weeks | 4 × 2 min bilateral contractions at 30% MVC, separated by 1-min rest | 806, 400 | − 5.5 mmHg (sig) | Diastolic BP | 8/15 | |
| Hess et al. [61] * Australia | RCT—“sham” | Men (n = 6) and women (n = 4), young (38.8 ± 10.5 years) | 3/week for 6 weeks | 4 × 2 min unilateral (non-dom) contractions at 5% MVC, separated by 1-min rest | 43,200 | − 4.04 mmHg (non-sig) | Diastolic BP, Heart rate |
11/15 | |
| Men (n = 6) and Women (n = 4), young (38.7 ± 12.6 years) | 3/week for 6 weeks | 4 × 2 min unilateral (non-dom) contractions at 10% MVC, separated by 1-min rest | 86,400 | − 5.62 mmHg (non-sig) | |||||
| Kumar et al. [39] United Kingdom | Cohort | Men (n = 10), aged (avg: 63 years), Women (n = 13), aged (avg: 66 years) |
Stable (stage 3–4) chronic kidney disease | 7/week for 4 weeks | 600 × 1 s unilateral (self-selected arm) HG contractions at max effort, separated by 2-s rest | 1,680,000 | Men: − 2.2 mmHg (grouped change non-sig) Women: 0 mmHg (grouped change non-sig) |
Diastolic BP, Arterial health and function (brachial and radial resting diameters) |
7/15 |
| McGowan et al. [55] Canada | Cohort | Men (n = 8), young (avg: 23 years), Women (n = 3), young (avg: 39 years) |
3/week for 8 weeks | 4 × 2 min unilateral (non-dom) HG contractions at 30% MVC, separated by 4-min rest | 345,600 | Men: − 6 mmHg (grouped change sig) Women: − 3 mmHg (grouped change sig) |
Diastolic BP, Arterial health and function (FMD) |
9/15 | |
| McGowan et al. [46] Canada | Cohort | Men (n = 12), aged (avg: 63 years) | Medicated hypertensive | 3/week for 8 weeks | 4 × 2 min unilateral (non-dom, n = 9) or bilateral (n = 7) HG contractions at 30% MVC, separated by 4-min rest | 345,600 | − 12 mmHg (grouped change sig) | Diastolic BP, Arterial health and function (FMD) |
9/15 |
| Women (n = 4), aged (avg: 68) | − 13 mmHg (grouped change sig) | ||||||||
| Millar et al. [47] Canada | Cohort | Men (n = 11), aged (avg: 66 years), Women (n = 2), aged (avg: 73 years) |
Medicated Hypertensive | 3/week for 8 weeks | 4 × 2 min unilateral (non-dom) HG contractions at 30% MVC, separated by 4-min rest | 345,600 | Men: − 2 mmHg (grouped change sig) Women: − 15 mmHg (grouped change sig) |
Diastolic BP, Heart rate, Autonomic nervous system indicators (HRV) |
9/15 |
| Millar et al. [53] Canada | RCT—traditional | Men (n = 14), aged (avg: 68 years), Women (n = 11), aged (avg: 63 years) |
3/week for 8 weeks | 4 × 2 min bilateral HG contractions at 30–40% MVC, separated by 1-min rest | 345,600–460,800 | Men: − 7 mmHg (grouped change sig) Women: − 11 mmHg (grouped change sig) |
Diastolic BP | 4/15 | |
| Pagonas et al. [50] * Germany | RCT—“sham” | Men and women (n = 24), aged (58.8 ± 10.6 years) | Hypertensive | 5/week for 12 weeks | 4 × 2 min bilateral HG contractions at 30% MVC, separated by 1-min rest | 864,000 | 0 mmHg | Diastolic BP, Arterial health and function (PWV) |
8/15 |
| Men and women (n = 23), aged (62.1 ± 7.1 years) | Hypertensive | 5/week for 12 weeks | 4 × 2 min bilateral HG contractions at 5% MVC, separated by 1-min rest | 144,000 | + 1.4 mmHg (non-sig) | ||||
| Peters et al. [37] * USA | Cohort | Men (n = 8) and women (n = 2), aged (52 ± 5) | Hypertensive | 3/week for 6 weeks | 4 × 45 s bilateral HG contractions at 50% MVC, separated by 1-min rest | 162,000 | − 13 mmHg (sig) | Diastolic BP | 3/15 |
| Ray et al. [56] * USA | RCT—traditional | Men and women (n = 9), young (19 to 35 years) | 4/week for 5 weeks | 4 × 3 min unilateral (non-dom) contractions at 30% MVC separated by 5-min rest | 432,000 | − 3 mmHg (non-sig) | Diastolic BP, Heart Rate, Autonomic Nervous System Indicators (MSNA) |
6/15 | |
| Somani et al. [40] Canada | Cohort | Men (n = 13), young (24 ± 4 years), Women (n = 13), young 25 ± 5 years |
3/week for 10 weeks | 4 × 2 min bilateral HG contractions at 30% MVC, separated by 1-min rest | 432,000 | Men: − 5 mmHg (sig) Women: − 3 mmHg (sig) |
Diastolic BP, Heart rate, Autonomic nervous system indicators (CV reactivity) |
10/15 | |
| Stiller-Moldovan et al. [48] * Canada | RCT—traditional | Men (n = 7) and women (n = 3), aged (60 ± 8.5 years) | Medicated hypertensive | 3/week for 8 weeks | 4 × 2 min bilateral HG contractions at 30–40% MVC, separated by 1-min rest | 345,600 | − 1.9 mmHg (non-sig) | Diastolic BP, Heart rate, Autonomic nervous system indicators (HRV) |
10/15 |
| Taylor et al. [43] * Canada | RCT—traditional | Men (n = 5) and women (n = 4), aged (69.3 ± 6 years) | Hypertensive | 3/week for 10 weeks | 4 × 2 min bilateral HG contractions at 30% MVC, separated by 1-min rest | 432,000 | − 19 mmHg (sig) | Diastolic BP, Heart rate, Autonomic nervous system indicators (HRV) |
6/15 |
| Thijssen et al. [58] United Kingdom | Cohort | Men (n = 11), young (22 ± 2 years) | 4/week for 8 weeks | 30 contractions/min bilateral contractions for 30 min at 30% MVC for 4 weeks, 40% MVC for 2 weeks and 50% MVC final 2 weeks | 1,080,000 | 0 mmHg (non-sig) | Diastolic BP, Heart rate, Arterial health and function (wall-to-lumen ration) |
7/15 | |
| Wiley et al. [57] * USA | Cohort | Men or women (n = 8), young (20–35 years) | 3/week for 8 weeks | 4 × 2 min unilateral (dom) contractions at 30% MVC separated by 3-min rest | 345,600 | − 13 mmHg (sig) | Diastolic BP, Heart rate |
6/15 | |
| Men or women (n = 10), young (29 to 52 years) | 5/week for 5 weeks | 4 × 45 s bilateral contractions at 50% MVC, separated by 1-min rest | 216,000 | − 9.5 mmHg (sig) |
MVC maximal volitional contraction
*Unable to acquire raw data to segregate for age and/or sex