Table 1:
Risk of incident contrast sensitivity (CS) impairment by baseline characteristics
| Baseline Characteristics | Incident CS impairment N (%) | Age- and Sex-Adjusted Hazard Ratio (HR) (95%CI) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| No 1517 (76.5%) | Yes 466 (23.5%) | ||
| Heavy Metals | |||
| Cadmium (μg/L) | |||
| Q1–4 (<0.52) | 1143 (81.6) | 331 (76.1) | Reference |
| Q5 (0.52+) | 257 (18.4) | 104 (23.9) | 1.40 (1.09, 1.81) |
| Lead (μg/dL) | |||
| Q1–4 (<2.06) | 1125 (80.4) | 338 (77.7) | Reference |
| Q5 (2.06+) | 275 (19.6) | 97 (22.3) | 0.91 (0.69, 1.18) |
| Demographics | |||
| Education | |||
| <16 years | 963 (63.8) | 312 (67.2) | Reference |
| 16+ years | 546 (36.2) | 152 (32.8) | 0.96 (0.77, 1.19) |
| Household Income | |||
| <$50,000 | 415 (28.1) | 168 (37.8) | 1.34 (1.07, 1.67) |
| $50,000+ | 1064 (71.9) | 277 (62.2) | Reference |
| Home environment | |||
| Location of Home | |||
| Town/City | 1041 (68.6) | 307 (65.9) | Reference |
| Country | 476 (31.4) | 159 (34.1) | 0.99(0.79, 1.22) |
| Municipal Drinking Water | |||
| No | 538 (35.5) | 173 (37.1) | Reference |
| Yes | 979 (64.5) | 293 (62.9) | 1.0(0.84, 1.28) |
| Employment | |||
| Farming/forestry/production/fabrication/labor | |||
| No | 1006 (75.3) | 281 (77.4) | Reference |
| Yes | 330 (24.7) | 82 (22.6) | 0.88(0.66, 1.18) |
| Metal exposure at Work | |||
| No | 1421 (94.4) | 447 (96.5) | Reference |
| Yes | 85 (5.6) | 16 (3.5) | 0.68(0.40, 1.15) |
| Behavioral factors | |||
| Regular Exercise (at least 1 time/week) | |||
| No | 556 (36.7) | 190 (40.9) | Reference |
| Yes | 959 (63.3) | 275 (59.1) | 0.96(0.78, 1.20) |
| Current smoker | |||
| No | 1267 (83.6) | 378 (81.1) | Reference |
| Yes | 249 (16.4) | 88 (18.9) | 1.55 (1.18, 2.03) |
| Alcohol consumption in previous year | |||
| None | 127 (8.4) | 67 (14.4) | Reference |
| Any | 1389 (91.6) | 389 (85.6) | 0.62 (0.46, 0.85) |
| Medication use | |||
| Multivitamins | |||
| No | 805 (53.1) | 235 (50.4) | Reference |
| Yes | 712 (46.9) | 231 (49.6) | 0.85 (0.69, 1.05) |
| Statins | |||
| No | 1340 (88.3) | 378 (81.1) | Reference |
| Yes | 177 (11.7) | 88 (18.9) | 1.02 (0.77, 1.36) |
| Vascular factors | |||
| Hypertension | |||
| No | 1064 (70.2) | 263 (56.4) | Reference |
| Yes | 452 (29.8) | 203 (43.5) | 1.19 (0.95, 1.48) |
| Number of plaque sites (0–6) | |||
| 0 | 1189 (82.5) | 276 (64.6) | Reference |
| 1–3 | 239 (16.6) | 134 (31.4) | 1.55 (1.20, 2.00) |
| 4–6 | 13 (0.9) | 17 (4.0) | 2.67 (1.36, 5.23) |
| Carotid intima-media thickness (mm)a | |||
| Mean (SD) | 0.63 (0.12) | 0.71 (0.18) | 1.19 (1.10, 1.29)b |
| Inflammatory markers | |||
| Interleukin-6 (pg/mL) | |||
| T1 (<1.27) | 541 (37.5) | 118 (26.6) | Reference |
| T2 (1.27-<2.28) | 501 (34.7) | 140 (31.6) | 0.99 (0.76, 1.30) |
| T3 (2.28+) | 400 (27.7) | 185 (41.8) | 1.54 (1.19, 2.01) |
| Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ng/mL) | |||
| T1 (<190.1) | 504 (34.9) | 139 (31.2) | Reference |
| T2 (190.1-<238.5) | 505 (34.9) | 155 (34.7) | 1.00 (0.77, 1.29) |
| T3 (238.5+) | 436 (30.2) | 152 (34.1) | 1.04 (0.80, 1.35) |
| C-reactive protein (mg/L) | |||
| <1.0 | 620 (42.8) | 150 (33.3) | Reference |
| 1.0–3.0 | 537 (37.1) | 175 (38.8) | 1.10 (0.86, 1.41) |
| >3.0 | 292 (20.1) | 126 (27.9) | 1.46 (1.11, 1.91) |
| Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (pg/mL) | |||
| T1 (<.358) | 515 (35.5) | 138 (30.6) | Reference |
| T2 (.358-<.613) | 479 (33.1) | 161 (35.7) | 1.12 (0.87, 1.45) |
| T3 (.613+) | 455 (31.4) | 152 (33.7) | 1.10 (0.85, 1.43) |
| Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (ng/mL) | |||
| T1 (<497) | 520 (35.9) | 143 (31.7) | Reference |
| T2 (497-<635) | 491 (33.9) | 142 (31.5) | 0.92 (0.71, 1.19) |
| T3 (635+) | 438 (30.2) | 166 (36.8) | 1.05 (0.81, 1.37) |
| Visual Health | |||
| Age-related macular degenerationc | |||
| No | 1459 (97.1) | 433 (95.8) | Reference |
| Yes | 44 (2.9) | 19 (4.2) | 1.12 (0.65, 1.92) |
| Cataractd | |||
| No | 1459 (97.8) | 410 (90.9) | Reference |
| Yes | 32 (2.2) | 41 (9.1) | 1.97 (1.27, 3.07) |
| Visual acuity impairment (worse eye) | |||
| No | 1499 (98.8) | 452 (97.0) | Reference |
| Yes | 18 (1.2) | 14 (3.0) | 2.58 (1.32, 5.01) |
| Other health | |||
| Diabetes | |||
| No | 1436 (96.8) | 414 (90.6) | Reference |
| Yes | 47 (3.2) | 43 (9.4) | 2.06(1.37, 3.10) |
| Body mass index (Kg/m2) | |||
| <25.0 | 350 (23.3) | 78 (16.9) | Reference |
| 25.0-<30.0 | 532 (35.4) | 141 (30.5) | 0.98 (0.72, 1.34) |
| 30.0+ | 622 (41.4) | 243 (52.6) | 1.28 (0.96, 1.72) |
| Waist circumference (cm)a | |||
| Mean (SD) | 98.2 (15.8) | 103.5 (17.2) | 1.07(1.04, 1.11) |
a
Presented as mean and standard deviation (SD) where noted.
b
Parameter estimate based on increase in carotid-IMT of 0.1 mm
c
Based on graded retinal fundus images
d
Based on graded slit-lamp and retro-illumination lens images