Table 1.

Overview of the life-long phenotypic effects of in ovo stimulation with prebiotics and probiotics on day12 of egg incubation

Prebiotic	Amount (mg/ml)	Probiotic	Amount CFU	Effects of in ovo stimulation	Reference
a. Hatchability, performance and intestinal microbiota
RFO	0,1763; 0,8815; 1763	–	–	Confirmed effects of RFO injected in ovo on day 12 of egg incubation, increased number of bifidobacteria	Villaluenga et al. 2004 [11]
FOS, RFO	1763 2,1158	–	–	Decreased mortality, high level of bifidobacteria after hatching and before slaughter	Pilarski et al. 2005 [39]
RFO	1900	–	–	Increased body weight and FCR, increased and dose-dependent counts of bifidobacteria	Bednarczyk et al. 2011 [38]
RFO	1900	–	–	Improved performance traits of broiler chickens	Brudnicki et al., 2015 [40]
GOS, Laminaria spp. seaweed extract containing laminarin and fucoidan	3500 0,880	–	–	Increased number of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria in chicken feces, validation of in ovo vs. in-feed prebiotics administration	Bednarczyk et al., 2016 [33]
GOS, Laminaria spp. seaweed extract containing laminarin and fucoidan	3500 0,880	–	–	Improvement in a number of production parameters including carcass weight and yield	Maiorano et al., 2017 [41]
GOS, RFO	3500 1900	Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus plantarum		Modulation of the fecal microflora composition	Dunislawska et al.,2017 [42]
b. Intestinal morphology
RFO	1500 3000 4500	–	–	Potential to enhance ileum mucosa morphology and improve immunity in the small intestine	Berrocoso et al., 2016 [43]
Inulin, GOS	1760 0,528	Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris	103 103	Increase in the number of goblet cells in the duodenum and the jejunum on day 1 of life, followed by significant decrease on the day 4	Bogucka et al., 2016 [44]
Inulin, GOS	1760 0,528	Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris	103 103	Significantly higher number of goblet cells	Bogucka et al., 2017 [45]
RFO	1900	–	–	Increased length of the small intestine and transient effect (days 1–3 post-hatching) on villi length and surface	Brudnicki et al., 2017 [46]
Laminaria spp. seaweed extract containing laminarin and fucoidan	0,880	–	–	Increase in villi width and crypt depth in duodenum on day 21	Sobolewska et al., 2017 [47]
GOS, RFO	2000 2000	Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus plantarum	105 105	Increased absorbent area of villi in different sections of the intestine on days 1 and 42, increase in the number of the goblet cells, reduced crypt depth	Sobolewska et al., 2017 [48]
c. Muscle histology and meat quality
RFO	1900	–	–	Improved meat quality in terms of collagen content	Maiorano et al., 2012 [49]
d. Immune system development and function
Oligosaccharide extract of palm kernel cake (PKC)	20	–	–	Increased IgG production and antioxidant capacity in serum and liver of prenatal chicks and had limited carrying-over effects on the post-hatched chicks	Jahromi et al., 2017 [50]
Inulin, GOS	1760 0,528	Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris	103 103	Prebiotics and synbiotics can modulate the central and peripheral lymphatic organ development in broilers	Madej et al., 2015 [51]
Inulin, GOS	1760 0,528	Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris	103 103	Stimulated GALT development after hatching and colonization with lymphocytes	Madej & Bednarczyk 2016 [52]
RFO	0,7765 0,8815 1763	–	–	Protective effect against Salmonella enteritidis infection	Ruiz Lopez et al., 2008 [53]
e. Gene expression modulation
RFO	1900	Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris,	103 103	Stimulation of an immune system by lymphatic organs development	Slawinska et al., 2014 [54]
Inulin	1760	Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis,	103	Down-regulation of gene expression in cecal tonsils and spleen	Plowiec et al., 2015 [55]
Inulin GOS	1760 0,528	Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris	103 103	Long-term transcriptomic effects	Slawinska et al., 2016 [56]
GOS, RFO	2000 2000	Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus plantarum	105 105	Significant impact on gene expression level in spleen and cecal tonsils	Dunislawska et al., 2017 [42]
GOS, RFO	2000 2000	Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus plantarum	105 105	Downregulated GLP-1 and GIP mRNA expression in the duodenum and GLP-1R in the pancreas	Kołodziejski et al., 2018 [57]
f. Avian physiology
RFO	1900	–	–	Increased rate of yolk sac absorption	Brudnicki et al., 2015 [40]
Inulin GOS	1760 0,528	Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris	103 103	Increased the activity of amylase, lipase, and trypsin in the pancreas	Pruszynska Oszmalek et al., 2015 [58]
Inulin GOS	1760 0,528	Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris	103 103	Increased body weight, improved the short – chain fatty acid cecal profile, increase the villus length	Miśta et al., 2017 [59]