Table 1.

Maternal and children’s characteristics according to maternal gestational diabetes status.

Maternal and children’s characteristics	Non-GDM	GDM	P value
Number of subjects	578	578
Maternal characteristics
Age at delivery, years	29.7 ± 2.91	30.5 ± 3.58	<0.001
Gestational age at delivery, weeks	39.1 ± 1.52	39.1 ± 1.34	0.54
Prepregnancy BMI, kg/m2	21.4 ± 2.94	22.9 ± 3.06	<0.001
Prepregnancy BMI categories, %			<0.001
<24.0	85.6	68.0
24.0–27.9	10.7	25.8
≥28	3.6	6.2
Gestational weight gain, kg	18.2 ± 6.70	16.6 ± 5.85	<0.001
Education, %			<0.001
≤12 years	10.7	20.1
13–15 years	75.6	72.8
≥16 years	13.7	7.1
Current smokers, %	3.8	1.7	0.046
Passive smokers, %	54.8	52.8	0.48
Alcohol drinkers, %	31.7	21.6	<0.001
Child characteristics
Boy, %	52.2	52.2	1.00
Age, months	70.4 ± 14.7	70.4 ± 14.9	0.98
Mode of infant feeding, %			0.45
Exclusive breastfeeding	40.9	44.3
Mixed breast and formula	44.5	42.9
Exclusive formula feeding	14.6	12.8
Vegetables intake frequency, %			<0.001
≤ 1 time/day	13.1	3.3
2 times/day	81.3	93.6
≥ 3 times/day	5.5	3.1
Fruits intake frequency, %			0.60
<1 time/day	3.1	4.2
1 time/day	38.4	37.0
>1 time/day	58.5	58.8
Outdoor activity, h/day	2.12 ± 0.86	2.20 ± 0.91	0.10
Screen watching time, h/day	0.95 ± 0.76	1.17 ± 0.83	<0.001
Sleeping duration, %			0.019
≤8 h/day	11.1	14.5
9–10 h/day	67.3	69.6
≥11 h/day	21.6	15.9
Birth BMI, kg/m2	13.3	13.7	<0.001
Height, cm	118 ± 9.18	118 ± 9.75	0.50
Z-score for height-for-age	0.69 ± 1.01	0.75 ± 1.01	0.25
Weight, kg	22.1 ± 5.99	23.1 ± 6.91	0.011
Z-score for weight-for-age	0.45 ± 1.20	0.70 ± 1.26	0.001
Body mass index, kg/m2	15.7 ± 2.30	16.2 ± 2.59	<0.001
Z-score for body mass index-for-age	0.02 ± 1.28	0.34 ± 1.35	<0.001
Waist circumference, cm	54.7 ± 6.09	56.3 ± 6.77	<0.001
Body fat, %	19.1 ± 7.42	20.7 ± 7.97	<0.001
Triceps skinfold, mm	12.8 ± 5.36	12.7 ± 5.81	0.69
Subscapular skinfold, mm	7.22 ± 3.82	8.10 ± 4.42	<0.001
Suprailiac skinfold, mm	9.67 ± 5.96	11.6 ± 6.99	<0.001
Overweight (Z-BMI ≥1.035), %	18.5	27.0	0.001
Obesity (Z-BMI ≥1.645), %	10.6	17.0	0.002
Central obesity, %	5.7	8.8	0.04
High body fat, %	19.9	28.6	0.001

Values are means ± s.d. unless otherwise specified.

GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus.