Table 1.

Control Variables

Construct	Indicators and Response Options
Demographic Characteristics
Age	Continuous indicator; centered at 16 in multivariate analyses.
Female	Dummy variable for female (0/1).
Race/Ethnicity	Dummy variables for (a) non-Hispanic White [reference], (b) Black, (c) Hispanic, (d) Asian, and (e) other (includes American Indian) races (0/1).
Immigrant Status	Dummy variable for respondent not born in the United States (0/1).
Urban	Dummy variable for residing in an urban area (0/1).
Family SES	Combined scale of parent’s education and parent’s occupational level (0 to 9 [Bearman and Moody 2004]).
Family Structure	Dummy variables for lived with (a) both biological parents [reference], (b) a single parent, (c) a step-parent, or (d) some other arrangement (0/1).
Parental Supervision
Parental Autonomy	Seven-item count of whether parents let respondent make decisions (1 = yes, 0 = no) about their curfew, friends, clothing, TV, etc.
Lying to Parents	Past year frequency of lying to parents/guardians about where respondent has been or with whom they were (range: 0 = never to 3 = 5 or more times).
Disposition
Pubertal Development	Self-rated physical development compared to same–aged peers (range: –2 = “I look younger than most” to 2 = “I look older than most”).
College Expectations	Mean of “How much do you want to go to college?” and “How likely is it that you will go to college?” (range: 0 [low] to 4 [high]).
Marital Expectations	“What do you think the chances are that you will be married by age 25?” (range: 0 = almost no chance to 4 = almost certain).
Violent and Delinquent Behavior
Violent Perpetration	Four-item count of any past year perpetration (e.g., “been in a serious fight”; range 0 to 4).
Nonviolent Delinquency	10-item mean rating scale of frequency of past year perpetration (e.g., vandalism, theft; range: 0 = never to 3 = 5 or more times).
Alcohol Use	Past year frequency of alcohol use (range: 0 = never to 6 = every day or almost every day).
Childhood Abuse
Physical Abuse	Dummy variable for any parent/caregiver physical abuse experienced before 6th grade/age 12 (0/1); measured at Wave III or IV.
Sexual Abuse	Dummy variable for any parent/caregiver sexual abuse (including forced touching) experienced before 6th grade/age 12 (0/1); measured at Wave III or IV.
Number of Interviews	Count of the number of interviews provided beyond Wave 1 (range: 0 to 3).

Note: SES = socioeconomic status. Unless otherwise noted, all indicators are measured at Wave I. Preliminary analyses considered additional indicators that were ultimately excluded from the final models (see text for details).