Figure 4.

The observed distribution of papers with N female authors (black bars) compared to the expected distribution of papers with N female authors (red line) for the published papers dataset (see Figure S3 for the analogous relationships in the submitted papers dataset). The expectation is derived from a binomial distribution with the same mean as the observed average proportion of female authorship across all author positions, given N authors of known gender. As indicated by the stars over the left‐most bars, there was a significant overabundance of all‐male papers in all collaborations of three or more authors (p < 0.0001). There was no support for the “token female” hypothesis, as the number of papers with a single female author did not differ from that expected by the binomial distribution