Table 1.
Covariates category, names, and the data sources for ungulate N‐mixture models
| Covariate category/name | Sources |
|---|---|
| Relative abundance covariates | |
| Biotic covariates | |
| Forest type[Link], classified as broadleaf deciduous forest, mixed Korean pine‐deciduous forest, and mixed Korean pine‐spruce forest | Moderate‐resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) in 2009 |
| Abiotic covariates | |
| Elevation[Link] | 30 m DEM, SRTM |
| Slope[Link] (degree) | 30 m DEM, SRTM |
| Northness[Link], range from −1 (aspect toward south) to 1 (aspect toward north) | 30 m DEM, SRTM |
| Distance to frontier (km) | Forest inventory data in Changbaishan Mountain |
| Distance to river (km) | Forest inventory data in Changbaishan Mountain |
| Anthropogenic covariates | |
| Human activity | Count of independent observations of humans at each camera site |
| Cattle activity (summer season only) | Count of independent observations of cattle at each camera site |
| Road density[Link] (km/sq kilometer) | Forest inventory data in Changbaishan Mountain |
| Human population density[Link] (people/sq kilometer) | LandScan™ 2010 Global Population Dataset |
| Distance to settlement (km) | Forest inventory data in Changbaishan Mountain |
| Distance to road (including primary and secondary roads) (km) | Forest inventory data in Changbaishan Mountain |
| Detection covariates | |
| 10‐day interval (categorical) | Cameras |
| 30‐day interval (categorical) | Cameras |
| 60‐day interval (categorical) | Cameras |
| 10‐day interval (continual) | Cameras |
| 30‐day interval (continual) | Cameras |
| 60‐day interval (continual) | Cameras |
| Trail width | Field survey |
| Quadratic of trail width | Field survey |
| Camera effort | Camera days |
These covariates were calculated in 5 scales, including radius of 0.5 km, 1 km, 1.5 km, 2 km, and 3 km area around the camera location