Table 2.

Growth factors and tumour oncogenes/suppressors modulating macropinocytosis.

protein	activity in macropinocytosis	associated cancer	reference
Ras	membrane ruffling, macropinosome formation and trafficking	pancreas, biliary tract, large intestine, small intestine, lung, ovary	reviewed in Prior et al. [78]
Rac1	membrane ruffling	skin melanomas	Krauthammer et al. [79]
PI3 K	membrane ruffle extension, macropinosome formation	large intestine, central nervous system, gastric, breast, endometrium, lung, head and neck cancers	Samuels et al. [80] Bauer et al. [81]
PTEN	PI3 signalling pathway antagonist	endometrium, brain, skin, prostate	reviewed in Bauer et al. [81]
neurofibromin (NF1)	RasGAP/Ras inhibitor	neurofibromatosis type 1	Bloomfield et al. [82]
EGF/EGFR	MP initiation	lung, colon, breast, ovary, brain, head and neck	reviewed in Normanno et al. [83]
CXCL12/CXCR4	MP initiation	pituitary tumour, familial chronic lymphocytic leukaemia, breast, gastric, pancreas, ovary, colon	reviewed in Guo et al. [84]