Table 1.

Three views of complexity and their implications for IAH implementation—Elaborated from (23).

View	Main origins	Main characteristics	Consequences
1	• Mathematics • Physics • Computer sciences	• Sensitivity to initial conditions. • A complete/full description of system outcomes is not possible (while the rules may be simple). • For most systems, their global behavior cannot be directly inferred from the rules governing components and their interactions (holism).	• A small perturbation/event can have dramatic consequences. • Impossibility of predicting with certainty (uncertainty and errors in the predictions). • Existence of emergent properties.
2	• Data mining • Computer sciences	• Acknowledges vision 1. • Modeling and simulation to integrate heterogeneous expertise and massive data sources is the main strategy to build new knowledge. • The prediction of future states is an approximation and is confined within a certain time and space horizon.	• Decision making cannot be perfect. • We can narrow down the set of possibilities.
3	• Sociology • Cognitive sciences • Biology	• The subjectivity of individuals and societies is a difficult problem in modeling. • Ecosystems (including societies) self-regulate, adapt, evolve. • Heterogeneities in perceptions, values, regulations, and social structures.	• Importance of resilience. • Participation is required. Adaptive management is required.