Table 1.
Modulation of microbiota by probiotics on in vivo models of NAFLD.
| References | Animal model | Probiotic | Time | Microbiota analysis | Main outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kim et al., 2016 | HFD-fed C57BL/6J mice | Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (1 × 108 CFU per mouse) | 13 weeks | ↑Bacteroidetes ↓Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio (no significant) |
↓Hepatic fat accumulation ↓Serum triglycerides and cholesterol ↓PPARγ, SREBP1, CACC, FAS, GPAT, CD36 and ApoB100 ↓IL-6 and IL12 |
| Xue et al., 2017 | HFHS-fed SPF SD rats | Probiotic mixture containing 0.5 × 106 colony-forming units (CFU) live Bifidobacterium infantis and Lactobacillus acidophilus and 0.5 × 105 CFU live Bacillus cereus | 12 weeks | ↓E.coli ↓Enterococcus ↑Bifidobacteria ↑Lactobacillus ↑Bacteroides |
↓Liver inflammatory scoring ↓BWG Maintenance of tight junctions integrity and histology of the jejunum. ↑Occludin ↓LPS and TLR4 ↓TNF-α, IL-18 ↓ALT, AST, γ-GT ALP ↓TC, TG, LDL and FFA ↓HOMA-IR |
| Okubo et al., 2013 | MCD-fed C57BL/6 mice | Lactobacillus casei strain Shirota (109 CFU/day) | 6 weeks | ↑Bifidobacterium ↑Lactobacillus (L. casei and L. reuteri) |
↓Hepatic lipid content, inflammation, ballooning and fibrosis ↓LPS ↓α-SMA and TIMP-1 ↓SREBP-1c and FAS ↓TNF-α ↓Colon inflammation (nuclear NF-κB/p65) |
| Wang et al., 2015 | HFD-fed SPF C57BL/6J mice | Lactobacillus paracasei CNCM I-4270, L. rhamnosus CNCM I-3690, and Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis CNCM I-2494 | 6 weeks | Strain specific modulation of key phylotypes belonging to: ↑Bifidobacterium ↑Olsenella ↑Barnesiella ↑Allobaculum ↑Butyrivibrio ↓Desulfovibrionaceae ↓Oscillibacter ↓Clostridium XIVa |
↓Steatosis ↓BWG ↓HOMA-IR ↓Adipocyte size ↓CLS, MMP-12-positive cells and CD11c ↓Liver TNF-α (B. animalis) ↓LBP ↑Adiponectin (B. animalis) |
| Moya-Pérez et al., 2015 | HFD-fed C57BL/6 mice | Bifidobacterium pseudocatenulatum CECT 7765 | 14 weeks | ↑Allobaculum ↓Lactobacillus ↑Bifidobacterium ↓Alistipes ↑Lachnospiraceae ↑Dorea ↓Bacteroides |
↓Steatosis ↓BWG ↓Cholesterol ↓Triglycerides ↑Insulin sensitivity ↓Epididymal adipose tissue ↓Endotoxemia/TLR4 ↓Liver and systemic inflammation |
| Cano et al., 2013 | HFD-fed C57BL/6 mice | Bifidobacterium pseudocatenulatum CECT 7765 | 7 weeks | ↑Bifidobacterium spp. ↓Enterobacteriaceae |
↓Steatosis ↓BWG ↓Leptin levels ↓IL6 MCP1 ↑Insulin sensitivity |
| Kim et al., 2017 | HFD-fed C57BL/6 mice | Kefir milk contained 9.84 ± 0.36 log CFU/ml of lactic acid bacteria and 7.23 ± 0.41 log CFU/ml of yeast | 12 weeks | ↓Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ↑Lactobacillus ↑Lactococcus ↑Candida ↓Proteobacteria ↓Enterobacteriaceae ↓B. fragilis |
↓NAS ↓BWG ↑PPARα AOX ↓IL-6 ↓Total cholesterol and LDL |
| Everard et al., 2014b | db/db mice | Saccharomyces boulardii | 4 weeks | ↑Saccharomyces and total yeast ↑Bacteroidetes ↓Firmicutes ↓Proteobacteria ↓Tenericutes ↓Prevotella ↑Bacteroides |
↓Hepatic lipid content ↓BWG ↓Fat mass ↓CD11c, F4/80 and MCP-1 ↓Liver IL-1β ↓Serum IL-4, IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α |
α-SMA, α-smooth muscle actin; ACC, acetyl-CoA carboxylase; ALP, alkaline phosphatase; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; BWG, body weight gain; CLS, crown-like structures; FAS, fatty acid synthase; FFA, free fatty acids; γ-GT, gamma-glutamyltransferase; GPAT, glycerol phosphate acyltrasferase; HOMA-IR, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance; IL, interleukin; LBP, lipopolysaccharide-binding protein; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1; MMP-12, matrix metalloproteinase-12; NAS, NAFLD activity score; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa B; PPARγ, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma; SREBP-1c, sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c; TC, total cholesterol; TG, triglycerides; TIMP-1, metalloproteinase 1; TLR4, toll-like receptor 4; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor.