Table 3.
Sources, health effects, and risk factors for elevated lead exposure among women of childbearing age in SSA.
| References | Country (City) | Year of survey |
Sample Size (n) |
Mean ± SD (Range) BLL (μg/dl) |
Population description | Exposure source(s) | Exposure effect(s) |
Risk factors for elevated BLL |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clark (47) | Zambia | NR (but during or before 1977) | 122 | 41.2 ± 14.4 | Pregnant women living near a lead mine | Broken Hill Lead Mine at Kabwe, Zambia | No association with Hb levels in mothers and infants. | Proximity to a lead mine |
| 31 | 14.7 ± 7.5 | Pregnant women living away from lead mine | No association with birth weight | |||||
| Ojo et al. (48) | Nigeria (IleIfe) | NR | 62 | 6.81 ± 2.61 (2.46–15.09) | Non-pregnant women of childbearing age occupationally exposed to lead | occupational exposure | NR | NR |
| Haefliger et al. (26) | Senegal (Dakar) | 2007–2008 | 23 | 55.3 ± 19.8 (32.5–98.8) | Mothers of children who died of lead poisoning | Informal Used Lead-Acid Battery Recycling | NR | NR |
| Odhiambo et al. (49) | Kenya (Nairobi) | 1998 | 223 | 28.4 (0–295.0) |
Pregnant women | NR | NR | NR |
| Rollin et al. (50) | South Africa | 2005-2006 | 96 | 2.09a (0.74–5.03) | Pregnant women in rural area | NR | No association with birth weight, birth length, head circumference and gestational age. | Living in an urban setting |
| 3.29a (1.63–8.15) | Urban area | |||||||
| 2.07a (1.1–3.23) | Industrial area | |||||||
| 2.37a (1.06–3.89) | Atlantic ocean | |||||||
| 2.64a (0.61–16.15) | Mining area | |||||||
| 2.19a (0.88–2.94) | Indian ocean | |||||||
| 1.15a (1.63–4.94) | Inland area | |||||||
| Adekunle et al. (51) | Nigeria (Lagos) |
2006–2008 | 317 | 59.5 ± 2.1 | Pregnant women | NR | NR | Gestational agePregnancy status |
| 27.7 ± 1.1 | Non-pregnant women | |||||||
| Ikaraoha et al. (30) | Nigeria (Edo) | 2006–2008 | 59 | 60.2 ± 12.8 | Women with preeclampsia | NR | Positive association with preeclampsia, diastolic and systolic blood pressure | Pregnancy status |
| 150 | 26.3 ± 8.0 | Normal pregnant women | ||||||
| 122 | 13.1 ± 6.4 | Non-pregnant women | ||||||
| Njoku and Orisakwe (52) | Nigeria (Owerri) | 2011 | 99 | 99 ± 123 | Pregnant women | NR | No association with renal function, liver enzymes and Hb levels | Living in a rural setting |
| Ugwuja et al. (45, 46) | Nigeria (Abakaliki) | 2007–2008 | 349 | 36.4 ± 18.5 (2.7–73.8) | Pregnant women (GA ≤ 25 weeks) | NR | Positive association with maternal WBC level, incidence of malaria and hypertension. | Age, Parity, Low educational status, Trace element status, Occupation, Type of living accommodation. |
| Negative association with maternal Hb level and gestational diabetes. | ||||||||
| No association with pre-term delivery, birth weight and length. | ||||||||
| Mbogwe (53) | Botswana (Central district) | 2009–2010 | 137 | 1.96 ± 0.14 | 1st trimester | NR | NR | Gestational age, living in a rural setting, low socioeconomic status |
| 126 | 2.49 ± 0.17 | 2nd trimester | ||||||
| 106 | 2.66 ± 0.19 | 3rd trimester | ||||||
| Mathee et al. (54) | South Africa (Johannes-burg) | 2010 | 247 | 1.44b (1.0–9.9) | Non- Geophagic | Ingestion of soil | NR | Geophagy |
| 60 | 2.06b (1.0–8.6) | Goephagic | ||||||
| Obi et al. (55) | Nigeria (Nnewi) | 2010–2011 | 119 | 6.19 ± 2.77 (2.17–15.25) | Women at delivery | NR | No association with neonatal head circumference, abdominal circumference, birth weight, birth length and crown rump length. | NR |
| Chercos and Moges (56) | Ethiopia (Adis-Ababa) | 2011 | 40 | 34.32 ± 6.69 | Women living along a highway | Leaded gasoline | NR | Proximity to high traffic roads |
| 36 | 8.47 ± 3.01 | Women living 10 km from a highway | ||||||
| Bodeau-Livinec et al. (57) | Benin (Cotonou) | 2011–2013 | 227 | 5.14 ± 2.23 (2.28–20.20) | Mother of children (aged 1–2 years) with elevated blood lead levels. | Piped water | NR | NR |
| Consumption of animals killed by ammunition |
a
Median.
b
Geometric mean. NR, Not reported.