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Osteoporosis reduction mechanisms, offered by lactose-based prebiotics and interaction with probiotics. SCFAs: Short-chain fatty acids; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-α; IgA: Immunoglobulin A. (self-developed, figure compiled by authors based on Scholz-Ahrens et al., 2007 [31]; Whisner and Castillo, 2018 [32]; McCabe et al., 2015 [33]).
