Table 2.
Results from Multivariate Analyses Showing the Relationship between Child Incarceration Compared to Incarceration at Other Young Adult Ages for the Adult Health Outcomes of Adult General Health, Adult Mobility Limitations, Adult Depressive Symptoms, and Adult Suicidality (n=1,727)
| Odds ratio (95% Confidence interval) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model 1* | Model 2* | |||||||
| Worse adult general health** | Adult mobility limitations | Adult depressive symptoms | Adult suicidality | Worse adult general health | Adult mobility limitations | Adult depressive symptoms | Adult suicidality | |
| Age at first incarceration | ||||||||
| Age 7–14 | 0.97 (0.36–2.58) | 3.74 (1.69–8.31) | 1.98 (1.05–3.72) | 4.47 (1.59–12.52) | 1.32 (0.45–3.88) | 3.70 (1.39–9.87) | 1.59 (0.80–3.18) | 4.48 (1.58–12.71) |
| Age 15–17 | 1.47 (0.85–2.55) | 1.84 (1.05–3.22) | 1.17 (0.72–1.90) | 1.34 (0.56–3.19) | 1.54 (0.87–2.72) | 1.66 (0.92–3.02) | 1.04 (0.61–1.80) | 1.36 (0.56–3.29) |
| Age 18–20 | 1.27 (0.72–2.24) | 1.52 (0.89–2.57) | 1.44 (0.94–2.20) | 1.90 (1.15–3.14) | 1.35 (0.74–2.45) | 1.51 (0.87–2.62) | 1.42 (0.92–2.21) | 1.94 (1.16–3.25) |
| Age 21–24 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| Gender | ||||||||
| Female | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| Male | 0.94 (0.62–1.44) | 0.82 (0.51–1.33) | 0.83 (0.59–1.16) | 1.24 (0.77–2.01) | 1.17 (0.76–1.80) | 0.85 (0.52–1.39) | 0.79 (0.56–1.10) | 1.28 (0.76–2.13) |
| Race/ethnicity | ||||||||
| White | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| Black | 1.43 (0.86–2.35) | 0.92 (0.51–1.66) | 1.63 (1.04–2.55) | 0.94 (0.50–1.77) | 1.36 (0.77–2.41) | 0.88 (0.48–1.61) | 1.69 (1.10–2.61) | 1.13 (0.59–2.18) |
| Hispanic | 2.54 (1.51–4.28) | 0.56 (0.30–1.05) | 1.13 (0.59–2.18) | 0.83 (0.40–1.72) | 2.50 (1.48–4.22) | 0.61 (0.33–1.13) | 0.95 (0.46–1.95) | 0.92 (0.44–1.95) |
| Other | 2.79 (1.24–6.25) | 0.23 (0.07–0.76) | 1.0 (0.45–2.23) | 0.56 (0.16–1.91) | 3.26 (1.46–7.31) | 0.24 (0.07–0.80) | 1.09 (0.49–2.42) | 0.62 (0.19–2.03) |
| Age at Wave I | 0.92 (0.82–1.03) | 0.96 (0.86–1.08) | 0.92 (0.83–1.03) | 0.99 (0.86–1.14) | 0.93 (0.82–1.04) | 0.96 (0.86–1.09) | 0.93 (0.84–1.04) | 0.98 (0.85–1.13) |
| Highest level of parental education | ||||||||
| Less than high school | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| High school diploma | 0.95 (0.51–1.78) | 0.96 (0.43–2.12) | 1.19 (0.67–2.14) | 1.28 (0.60–2.73) | 0.99 (0.52–1.86) | 0.92 (0.42–2.00) | 1.41 (0.76–2.62) | 1.25 (0.56–2.78) |
| Some college | 0.64 (0.30–1.35) | 0.81 (0.35–1.87) | 1.09 (0.56–2.10) | 1.10 (0.51–2.37) | 0.57 (0.27–1.23) | 0.73 (0.32–1.64) | 1.24 (0.63–2.44) | 1.02 (0.46–2.28) |
| College degree or more | 0.88 (0.43–1.82) | 0.73 (0.32–1.66) | 0.78 (0.41–1.46) | 0.72 (0.30–1.74) | 0.85 (0.41–1.77) | 0.66 (0.30–1.47) | 0.91 (0.47–1.76) | 0.70 (0.29–1.71) |
| Household income (amount/year) | ||||||||
| $0–$24,999 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| $25,000–$49,999 | 2.18 (1.18–4.04) | 0.77 (0.42–1.43) | 1.28 (0.79–2.08) | 1.43 (0.74–2.77) | 2.30 (1.24–4.29) | 0.75 (0.39–1.46) | 1.16 (0.70–1.92) | 1.40 (0.72–2.73) |
| $50,000–$74,999 | 1.68 (0.71–3.94) | 1.18 (0.47–2.96) | 1.39 (0.71–2.72) | 1.52 (0.58–3.95) | 1.68 (0.72–3.94) | 1.21 (0.47–3.12) | 1.35 (0.68–2.68) | 1.54 (0.59–4.01) |
| $75,000 or more | 0.98 (0.35–2.72) | 1.34 (0.44–4.11) | 1.61 (0.83–3.14) | 1.14 (0.35–3.69) | 0.96 (0.34–2.70) | 1.36 (0.44–4.13) | 1.60 (0.82–3.12) | 1.13 (0.34–3.71) |
| Missing | 1.84 (0.97–3.49) | 0.99 (0.58–1.70) | 0.98 (0.62–1.55) | 0.99 (0.53–1.85) | 1.72 (0.89–3.36) | 1.00 (0.58–1.74) | 0.88 (0.54–1.43) | 0.90 (0.47–1.72) |
| Family household structure | ||||||||
| Two biological parents | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| Two parents (≥1 non-biological parent) | 1.05 (0.56–1.95) | 1.43 (0.79- –2.59) | 1.22 (0.81–1.83) | 0.92 (0.47–1.79) | 1.12 (0.58–2.15) | 1.42 (0.76–2.64) | 1.25 (0.82–1.91) | 0.93 (0.48–1.80) |
| Single parent | 1.26 (0.73–2.19) | 1.37 (0.79–2.38) | 1.27 (0.83–1.93) | 0.80 (0.42–1.54) | 1.36 (0.75–2.47) | 1.40 (0.79–2.48) | 1.22 (0.77–1.92) | 0.82 (0.41–1.63) |
| Other | 1.70 (0.79–3.64) | 1.24 (0.48–3.16) | 1.0 (0.48–2.10) | 1.39 (0.52–3.72) | 1.84 (0.82–4.11) | 1.34 (0.52–3.49) | 1.08 (0.51–2.27) | 1.10 (0.38–3.19) |
| Family connectedness | 0.93 (0.85–1.01) | 0.99 (0.92–1.06) | 0.96 (0.90–1.04) | 0.96 (0.89–1.04) | 0.93 (0.85–1.02) | 0.98 (0.91–1.05) | 0.95 (0.88–1.03) | 0.96 (0.88–1.05) |
| Perceived neighborhood safety | 1.57 (0.90–2.73) | 0.88 (0.42–1.84) | 1.33 (0.69–2.55) | 1.97 (1.10–3.52) | 1.74 (0.98–3.09) | 0.94 (0.45–1.97) | 1.37 (0.69–2.73) | 1.56 (0.84–2.91) |
| Neighborhood unemployment | 1.36 (1.04–1.77) | 1.15 (0.80–1.66) | 1.20 (0.95–1.53) | 1.15 (0.81–1.62) | 1.36 (1.01–1.81) | 1.19 (0.80–1.76) | 1.21 (0.96–1.53) | 1.12 (0.80–1.57) |
| Neighborhood high-school graduation rate | 1.02 (0.79–1.31) | 1.12 (0.81–1.54) | 0.91 (0.77–1.08) | 0.91 (0.62–1.32) | 1.00 (0.76–1.32) | 1.06 (0.75–1.49) | 0.91 (0.77–1.09) | 0.92 (0.62–1.37) |
| Wave I general health | 3.11 (1.87–5.16) | -- | -- | -- | 3.32 (2.00–5.50) | -- | -- | -- |
| Wave I mobility limitations | -- | 1.91 (0.79–4.58) | -- | -- | -- | 1.95 (0.80–4.73) | -- | -- |
| Wave I depressive symptoms | -- | -- | 2.25 (1.59–3.17) | -- | -- | -- | 2.24 (1.55–3.23) | -- |
| Wave I suicidal thoughts | -- | -- | -- | 3.45 (1.93–6.16) | -- | -- | -- | 3.91 (2.19–6.96) |
| Cumulative incarceration frequency | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.92 (0.56–1.52) | 0.78 (0.47–1.29) | 1.26 (0.85–1.86) | 0.80 (0.51–1.25) |
| Cumulative incarceration duration | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.99 (0.98–1.00) | 1.00 (0.99–1.01) | 1.01 (1.00–1.01) | 1.01 (1.00–1.02) |
*
Model 1 represents the full model adjusted for covariates. Model 2 represents the full model adjusted for covariates and cumulative frequency and duration of incarceration. Odds ratios shown in bold were statistically significant.
**
“Worse general health” refers to self-report of poor or fair health compared to excellent, very good, or good.