Table 1.
Characteristics of randomized controlled trials in the meta-analysis.
| Study | Participants | Intervention Protocol | Duration | Outcomes (Instrument) | Safety | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Healthy Status | Sample Size (female%) | Age (years) | Experiment | Control | Adverse Effect | |||
| Taylor-Piliae et al. (2010) [24] | Healthy | 132 (54.5%) | 69 | 5 × 45 min/week, TC | C1: 5 × 30–55 min/week, Vigorous walking (30 min), resistance (light hand weights and elastic strap) and flexibility training (10–25 min) C2: 1 × 90 min/week, Attention-control |
24 weeks | Language (BNT) Executive function: (WAIS) |
No |
| Sungkarat et al. (2018) [25] | MCI | 66 (86.4%) | 67.9 | 3 × 50 min/week, TC | 1 × 60 min/week, Health education about cognitive impairment and fall prevention | 24 weeks | Learning and memory (WMS) Visuospatial ability (BDT) Executive function (WAIS) Executive function (TMT) |
No |
| Oken et aL (2006) [26] | Healthy | 135 (74.8%) | 72 | 1 × 90 min/week structured Yoga class + daily home Yoga practice | C1: 5 × 60 min/week, Walking (moderate intensity) C2: Wait-list |
24 weeks | Executive function (SCWT) Learning and memory (10-word list learning task) |
1 person with groin muscle strain |
| Sun et al. (2015) [27] | Healthy | 138 (75.4%) | 69 | 2 × 60 min/week, TC | Playing cards or singing | 24 weeks | Global cognition (MMSE) | No |
| Nguyen et al. (2012) [28] | Healthy | 96 (50%) | 68.9 | 2 × 60 min/week, TC | Routine daily activities | 24 weeks | Executive function (TMT) | No report |
| Lavretsky et al. (2013) [29] | Major depression | 73 (61.6%) | 70.5 | 1 × 120 min/week, TC | 1 × 120 min/week, Health education on depression, stress, sleep, and health-related issues | 10 weeks | Global cognition (MMSE) Learning and memory (CVLT) Executive function (SCWT) |
No |
| Greblo Jurakic et al. (2017) [30] | MCI | 28 (100%) | 70.4 | 3 × 60 min/week, Pilates | 3 × 30 min/week, HUBER® training | 8 weeks | Attention (MoCA) Learning and memory (MoCA) Language (MoCA) Visuospatial ability (MoCA) |
No |
| Gothe et al. (2017) [31] | Healthy | 118 (48.3%) | 62 | 3 × 60 min/week, Yoga | 3 × 60 min/week, Stretching and muscle strength, 10–12 repetitions for each exercise (i.e., resistance bands, bicep curls, tricep extensions, and flutter kicks) | 8 weeks | Executive function (TMT) | No |
| Sivakumar et al. (2015) [32] | Stroke and Psychosis | 120 (60%) | 75 | 3–4 × 60 min/week, Yoga | Wait-list | 24 weeks | Executive function (WMS) Executive function (SCWT) Executive function (TMT) Visuospatial ability (CFT) Learning and memory (RAVLT) Learning and memory (COWA) |
No |
| Hwang et al. (2016) [33] | Falling | 456 (66.7%) | 73 | 1 × 60 min/week, TC | 1 × 60 min/week, Stretching, muscle strengthening (i.e., hip extensors, abductors/knee flexors and extensors, and ankle dorsiflexors and plantar flexors), and balance training at increasing difficulty levels | 24 weeks | Global cognition (MMSE) | No |
| Tsang et al. (2013) [34] | Frailty | 116 (75%) | 84 | 2–3 × 60 min/week Qigong + daily home Qigong practice | Newspaper reading | 12 weeks | Attention (LOTCA) | No |
| Eyre et al. (2017) [35] | MCI | 79 (65.8%) | 68 | 1 × 60 min/week, Yoga | Memory training | 12 weeks | Learning and memory (WMS) Visuospatial ability (Rey-O) Executive function (TMT) Language (BNT) |
1 side effect (dizziness) |
| Lam et al. (2011) [36] | MCI | 389 (76.3%) | 78 | 3–7 × >30 min/week, TC | 3–7 × >30 min/week, Stretching exercise |
8 weeks | Global cognition (MMSE) Executive function (CTMT) Language (CVFT) Executive function (WMS) |
No |
| Siu et al. (2018) [37] | MCI | 160 (73.6%) | ≥60 | 2 × 60 min/week, TC | Usual care (i.e., recreational activities, general physical mobility, and social activities) | 16 weeks | Global cognition (MMSE) | No |
| Cai et al. (2018) [38] | MCI | 58 | 67 | 5 × 90 min/week, Qigong | Usual care (i.e., recreational activities, general physical mobility, and social activities) | 24 weeks | Global cognition (MMSE) Executive function (CTMT) Executive function (WMS) |
No |
| Zhou et al. (2016) [39] | Dementia | 40 (55%) | 67 | 5 × 60 min/week, TC | Jogging (HR≈120/min) | 32 weeks | Global cognition (MMSE) | No |
| Dechamps et al. 2010 [40] | Dementia | 160 (78.1%) | 82 | 4 × 30 min/week, TC | C1: 2 × 30–40 min/week, Mild intensity exercises (e.g., cycling and knee elevations, arm rising, and circle drawing) C2: usual care (i.e., no restriction in medical care, physical activity, physiotherapy, or any health care support) |
24 weeks | Global cognition (MMSE) | No |
| Mortimer et al. 2012 [41] | Healthy | 120 (66.7%) | 68 | 3 × 50 min/week, TC | C1: 3 × 50 min/week, aerobic exercise (brisk walking) C2: 3 × 60 min/week, social interaction (lively discussion with each other) C3: no intervention |
40 weeks | Executive function (SCWT) Learning and memory (CAVLT) Language (BNT) Executive function (TMT) Visuospatial ability (CDT) Executive function (WAIS) |
No |
| Tsai et al. 2013 [42] | MCI & Osteoarthritic Knee | 55 (72.7%) | 79 | 4 × 20–40 min/week, TC | Health education and activities (e.g., sharing travel experiences, hobbies, and collections) | 20 weeks | Global cognition (MMSE) | No |
Note: AE = adverse effect; TC = Tai Chi; C = Control group; MCI = Mild Cognitive Impairment; HR = Heart rate; BDT = Block Design Test; BNT = Boston Naming Test; WAIS = Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale; TMT = Trail Making Test; WMS = Wechsler Memory Scale; SCWT = Stroop Color and Word Test; CVLT = California Verbal Learning Test; MoCA = Montreal Cognitive Assessment; CFT = Complex Figure Test; RAVLT = Rey’s Auditory Verbal Learning Test; COWA = Controlled Oral Word Association Test; LOTCA = Lowenstein Occupational Therapy Cognitive Assessment; Rey-O = Rey Osterrieth test; CDT = Clock drawing test; CVFT = Category Verbal Fluency Tests; CAVLT = Chinese Auditory Verbal Learning Test.