Table 3.
Basic characteristics and dietary habits among frail, prefrail, and robust women, as diagnosed by the KCL criteria.
| Robust (n = 313) | Prefrail (n = 185) | Frail (n = 48) | p-Value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years) | 71.7 ± 5.5 | 72.9 ± 5.6 | 75.4 ± 5.7 | <0.001 (R vs. F) 0.042 (R vs. P) 0.018 (P vs. F) |
| Height (cm) | 152.1 ± 5.3 | 151.2 ± 5.7 | 148.5 ± 6.2 | <0.001 (R vs. F) 0.009 (P vs. F) |
| BW (kg) | 51.8 ± 7.0 | 50.6 ± 7.1 | 50.4 ± 7.6 | n.s. |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 22.4 ± 2.7 | 22.2 ± 3.0 | 22.8 ± 3.5 | n.s. |
| SBP (mmHg) | 139.5 ± 16.6 | 139.1 ± 18.5 | 142.3 ± 17.9 | n.s. |
| DBP (mmHg) | 80.8 ± 10.1 | 80.4 ± 10.9 | 80.6 ± 9.6 | n.s. |
| MMSE score | 28.5 ± 1.8 | 28.4 ± 1.8 | 28.0 ± 1.8 | n.s. |
| Smoking Habit Never | 293 (93.6) | 170 (91.9) | 45 (93.8) | |
| Past | 13 (4.2) | 11 (5.9) | 2 (4.2) | |
| Current | 7 (2.2) | 4 (2.2) | 1 (2.1) | n.s. |
| Alcohol drinking | 99 (31.6) | 52 (28.1) | 6 (12.5) | 0.024 |
| Exercise habit | 215 (68.7) | 119 (64.3) | 20 (41.7) | 0.001 |
| Comorbidities | ||||
| Hypertension | 125 (39.9) | 84 (45.4) | 25 (52.1) | n.s. |
| DM | 24 (7.7) | 17 (9.2) | 7 (14.6) | n.s. |
| Dyslipidemia | 88 (28.1) | 49 (26.5) | 11 (22.9) | n.s. |
| Chronic liver disease | 11 (3.5) | 4 (2.2) | 3 (6.3) | n.s. |
| CKD | 6 (1.9) | 5 (2.7) | 5 (10.4) | 0.005 |
| CVD | 18 (5.8) | 16 (8.6) | 4 (8.3) | n.s. |
| Gastrointestinal disease | 13 (4.2) | 9 (4.9) | 8 (16.7) | 0.002 |
| Asthma/ COPD | 4 (1.3) | 10 (5.4) | 3 (6.3) | 0.016 |
| Thyroid disease | 13 (4.2) | 13 (7.0) | 1 (2.1) | n.s. |
| Osteoporosis | 42 (13.4) | 40 (21.6) | 12 (25.0) | 0.021 |
| RA and collagen disease | 9 (2.9) | 4 (2.2) | 0 | |
| History of cancer | 12 (3.8) | 10 (5.4) | 6 (12.5) | 0.039 |
| Robust (n = 313) | Prefrail (n = 185) | Frail (n = 48) | p-value | |
| Energy intake (kcal/day) | 1928 ± 537 | 2032 ± 594 | 1994 ± 624 | 0.031 (R vs. P) |
| Energy intake/BW (kcal/day/kg) | 38.0 ± 12.3 | 40.9 ± 13.4 | 40.4 ± 13.6 | n.s. |
| Macro- and micronutrients | ||||
| Carbohydrate (% energy/day) | 51.9 ± 7.0 | 51.9 ± 7.7 | 52.2 ± 6.7 | n.s. |
| Total protein (% energy/day) | 18.0 ± 3.3 | 17.8 ± 3.5 | 17.2 ± 3.1 | n.s. |
| Fat (% energy/day) | 28.7 ± 4.8 | 28.6 ± 5.2 | 29.5 ± 4.8 | n.s. |
| Sodium (g/day) | 4.66 ± 1.53 | 4.92 ± 1.56 | 4.71 ± 1.77 | n.s. |
| Potassium (g/day) | 3.41 ± 1.14 | 3.52 ± 1.29 | 3.33 ± 1.27 | n.s. |
| Calcium (mg/day) | 790 ± 291 | 827 ± 336 | 737 ± 272 | n.s. |
| Magnesium (mg/day) | 321 ± 105 | 334 ± 115 | 311 ± 114 | n.s. |
| Phosphorus (mg/day) | 1364 ± 483 | 1422 ± 519 | 1340 ± 542 | n.s. |
| Iron (mg/day) | 10.2 ± 3.5 | 10.5 ± 3.6 | 10.1 ± 3.8 | n.s. |
| Zinc (mg/day) | 9.56 ± 3.07 | 9.90 ± 3.08 | 9.58 ± 3.55 | n.s. |
| Manganese (mg/day) | 3.86 ± 1.11 | 3.92 ± 1.22 | 3.70 ± 1.20 | n.s. |
| Copper (mg/day) | 1.34 ± 0.40 | 1.39 ± 0.45 | 1.35 ± 0.47 | n.s. |
| Retinol equivalent (μg /day) | 1019 ± 688 | 1018 ± 586 | 934 ± 478 | n.s. |
| α-Carotene (μg/day) | 649 ± 423 | 689 ± 490 | 592 ± 399 | n.s. |
| β-Carotene equivalent (μg/day) | 5820 ± 3188 | 6076 ± 3433 | 5558 ± 3201 | n.s. |
| Vitamin D (μg/day) | 24.1 ± 15.9 | 25.7 ± 16.0 | 22.2 ± 16.1 | n.s. |
| α-Tocopherol (mg/day) | 9.44 ± 3.37 | 9.93 ± 3.69 | 9.86 ± 4.16 | n.s. |
| γ-Tocopherol (mg/day) | 13.6 ± 4.8 | 14.7 ± 5.7 | 14.7 ± 5.3 | n.s. |
| Vitamin K (mg/day) | 413 ± 202 | 423 ± 216 | 399 ± 232 | n.s. |
| Vitamin B1 (mg/day) | 0.98 ± 0.33 | 1.01 ± 0.35 | 0.97 ± 0.38 | n.s. |
| Vitamin B2 (mg/day) | 1.70 ± 0.54 | 1.73 ± 0.59 | 1.66 ± 0.57 | n.s. |
| Niacin (mg/day) | 21.3 ± 8.5 | 21.9 ± 8.2 | 20.9 ± 9.8 | n.s. |
| Vitamin B6 (mg/day) | 1.63 ± 0.59 | 1.67 ± 0.61 | 1.62 ± 0.68 | n.s. |
| Vitamin B12 (μg/day) | 13.7 ± 8.1 | 14.4 ± 8.2 | 13.3 ± 9.1 | n.s. |
| Folate (μg/day) | 479 ± 178 | 484 ± 188 | 454 ± 185 | n.s. |
| Pantothenic acid (mg/day) | 8.00 ± 2.59 | 8.20 ± 2.83 | 7.99 ± 2.97 | n.s. |
| Vitamin C (mg/day) | 182 ± 75 | 183 ± 84 | 175 ± 78 | n.s. |
| Cryptoxanthin (μg/day) | 489 ± 352 | 519 ± 437 | 454 ± 331 | n.s. |
| Food group (g/day) | ||||
| Cereals | 336 ± 142 | 356 ± 147 | 348 ± 139 | n.s. |
| Potatoes | 68.9 ± 53.7 | 73.0 ± 62.2 | 74.3 ± 62.9 | n.s. |
| Sugar and sweeteners | 5.90 ± 4.15 | 6.39 ± 5.03 | 6.48 ± 4.55 | n.s. |
| Soy products | 88.0 ± 45.8 | 91.6 ± 54.1 | 84.0 ± 46.3 | n.s. |
| Total vegetables | 377 ± 186 | 392 ± 201 | 365 ± 184 | n.s. |
| Fruits | 180 ± 114 | 180 ± 135 | 178 ± 116 | n.s. |
| Fish and shellfish | 120 ± 76 | 128 ± 79 | 120 ± 100 | n.s. |
| Meats | 79.9 ± 51.5 | 77.3 ± 39.2 | 81.6 ± 60.6 | n.s. |
| Eggs | 43.9 ± 26.3 | 44.8 ± 31.0 | 54.0 ± 35.6 | n.s. |
| Dairy products | 174 ± 97 | 179 ± 119 | 159 ± 88 | n.s. |
| Oil | 10.0 ± 5.0 | 11.0 ± 5.4 | 12.0 ± 5.4 | 0.036 (R vs. F) |
| Confectioneries | 67.7 ± 50.2 | 73.3 ± 63.4 | 76.6 ± 49.0 | n.s. |
Mean ± SD or number (%), n.s.: not significant, R: Robust, P: Prefrail, F: Frail.