. 2018 Dec 15;10(12):1992. doi: 10.3390/nu10121992

Table 4.

Food Preferences Assessed as a Function of PE Status ^a.

Reference	Relationship Measure	Age at Analysis		Food/Food Group Assessed	Results
Rohde et al. [13]	β (95% CI) (relative to NPE) ^b	2 to 6 y (median 3.9 y)		Fruits	2.9 (−18.1 to 24.0)
				Vegetables	0.24 (−24.55 to 25.02)
				Grains and Grain Products	−10.16 (−23.25 to 2.93)
Oliveira et al. [27] ^c	OR (95% CI) for relation-ship between early eating behavior and later high fruit and vegetable intakes ^d.	Feeding difficulties	4 to 6 mo	Fruits/Vegetables	G21, 0.74 (0.5, 1.03) ALSPAC, 0.82 (0.72, 0.93) *
			12 to 15 mo		G21, 0.69 (0.48, 0.99) * ALSPAC, 0.77 (0.67, 0.88) *
			24 mo		ALSPAC, 0.76 (0.67,0.86) * EDEN, 0.67 (0.49,0.93) *
			48 to 60 mo		G21, 0.66 (0.58, 0.76) * ALSPAC, 0.75 (0.67,0.84) * EDEN, 0.72 (0.51,1.02)
		Poor eating	4 to 6 mo		G21, 1.13 (0.82, 1.56) ALSPAC, 1.07 (0.94,1.22) EDEN, 1.40 (0.67,2.93)
			12 to 15 mo		G21, 0.63 (0.44, 0.92) * ALSPAC, 1.03 (0.9,1.17) EDEN, 0.82 (0.44,1.48)
			24 mo		ALSPAC, 0.87 (0.76, 0.99) * EDEN, 1.12 (0.63,1.98)
			48 to 60 mo		G21, 0.71 (0.62, 0.81) * ALSPAC, 0.80 (0.71,0.91) *
		FR/food neophobia	4 to 6 mo		G21, 0.87 (0.64, 1.19) ALSPAC, 1.07 (0.92,1.26)
			12 to 15 mo		G21, 0.72 (0.50, 1.04) ALSPAC, 0.89 (0.78,1.01)
			24 mo		ALSPAC, 0.84 (0.72, 0.98) * EDEN, 0.60 (0.46,0.79) *
			48 to 60 mo		G21, 0.58 (0.51, 0.67) * ALSPAC, 0.85 (0.76,0.96) * EDEN, 0.62 (0.47,0.82) *
Rodenburg et al. [32]	Adjusted β^q (relationship between food fussiness and food intake)	7 to 10 y (2009 analysis)		Fruits	β = −0.16 *
		7 to 10 y (2009 analysis)		Sugar/Sweetened Beverages	β = 0.03
		8 to 11 y (2010 analysis)		Fruits	β = -0.14 *
		8 to 11 y (2010 analysis)		Sugar/Sweetened Beverages	β = 0.04
Horodynski et al. [35]	Odds of consumption for PE vs. NPE	25 mo		Fruits	OR = 0.641; 95% CI: 0.452 to 0.908 *
Horodynski et al. [35]	Odds of consumption for PE vs. NPE	25 mo		Vegetables	OR = 0.397; 95% CI: 0.271 to 0.582 *
Jones et al. [19]	β is the adjusted difference in intake relative to the reference category “choosy most of the time”, which is set at zero.	7 y		Fruits	Choosy sometimes: β = 1.82; 95% CI: 0.67 to 2.97 Not choosy: β = 2.77; 95% CI: 1.62 to 3.91 * P for trend: <0.001
Jones et al. [19]		7 y		Vegetables	Choosy sometimes: β = 1.64; 95% CI: 1.03 to 2.24 * Not choosy: β = 2.57; 95% CI: 1.87 to 3.27 * P for trend: <0.001
Dubois et al. [37,38]	Odds of eating specified # of servings from each food group relative to the group for which picky eating was “never reported”, which was set at 1.0.	4.5 y ^e		Fruits/Vegetables (>5 servings)	PE reported once or twice: OR = 0.733; 95% CI: 0.508 to 1.058 PE reported at all 3 ages: OR = 0.570; 95% CI: 0.278 to 1.169
				Grain products (>5 servings)	PE reported once or twice: OR = 0.781; 95% CI: 0.545 to 1.118 PE reported at all 3 ages: OR = 0.635; 95% CI: 0.317 to 1.272
				Milk products (≥2 servings)	PE reported once or twice: OR = 0.831; 95% CI: 0.646 to 1.069 PE reported at all 3 ages: OR = 0.843; 95% CI: 0.532 to 1.335
				Meat and alternatives (≥2 servings)	PE reported once or twice: OR = 0.628; 95% CI: 0.479 to 0.823 * PE reported at all 3 ages: OR = 0.319; 95% CI: 0.181 to 0.560 *
Galloway et al. [40]	r_s (value for relationship between pickiness and food intake level).	7 y		Vegetables	r_s = −0.21 *

Abbreviations: ALSPAC = Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children; β = regression coefficient; CI = confidence intervals; EDEN = Study on the pre- and early postnatal determinants of child health and development; FR = food refusal; G21 = Generation XXI; mo = months; NPE = non-picky eater(s); OR = odds ratio; PE = picky eater(s); r_s = Spearman correlation coefficient; y = years. ^a Values appearing in bold-type font and with an asterisk (*) are significantly different between PE and NPE. ^b Values reported (β coefficients and 95% CI) are the results of linear regression models [adjusted for baseline measures of outcome, group (intervention/control), age, sex, and maternal education]. ^c “Feeding difficulties” corresponds to feeding difficulties (ALSPAC, GEN21, EDEN), “poor eating” corresponds to eats small quantities at each meal (at 4 to 5 mo) and does not eat enough (at 12 to 15 mo) (ALSPAC; Generation 21) and needs to be stimulated (at 4, 12 and 24 mo)(EDEN). “Food refusal” corresponds to refusal of milk (at 4 to 6 mo) and solids (at 12 to 15 mo) (ALSPAC, G21). “Food neophobia” was calculated as the mean of three questions [≥median (more neophobic) vs. <median (reference category)] (EDEN). ^d A high fruit intake was defined as >1 serving/d, and a high vegetable intake was defined as >1 serving/d, except in G21 (>3 serving/d). Subsequent intakes were assessed at age 4 y in G21, 4.5 y in ALSPAC, and 5 y in EDEN. ^e Eating behavior was assessed at 2.5, 3.5, and 4.5 years. A NPE was defined as a child for whom picky eating was not reported at any of the three ages. A PE was defined in two ways: (i) as a child for whom picky eating was defined at one or two ages (“reported once or twice”); or (ii) a child for whom picky eating was defined at all three ages (reported at all three ages).