. 2018 Dec 12;10(12):1966. doi: 10.3390/nu10121966

Table 2.

Study results.

Author(s), Study Country	Design	Aim(s)	Sample	BMI	n	Age of Children	FPP Measures	Relevant FPP Findings	Relevant Conclusions
Baughcum et al. (2001), USA [64]	Cross-sectional	To develop the Pre-schooler Feeding Questionnaire (PFQ).	634 mothers	18.5–29.9	488	23 months–5 year olds	PFQ	Significantly higher degree of age-inappropriate feeding (p = 0.004) (no longer true after adjusting for family income), concern about child overeating or being overweight (p = 0.001) regardless of child overweight and family income. Significantly lower degree of structure during feeding interactions (p = 0.001) (no longer true after adjusting for family income) among mothers with obesity vs. mothers without obesity. No significant differences on child control of feeding interactions (p = 0.070), using food to calm the child, concern about the child being underweight, difficulty in child feeding, and pushing the child to eat more (p values not reported) among mothers with obesity vs. mothers without obesity.	There is no specific feeding style associated with overweight young children.
				≥30	146

Cebeci and Guven (2014), Turkey [66]	Cross-sectional	To examine the influence of maternal obesity on FPPs with their children with obesity.	491 mothers	18–24.9	41	6–18.5 year olds	Turkish CFQ	Other than perceived parent weight (p < 0.001), there were no significant differences in any CFQ subscales (concern over perceived responsibility (p = 0.494), perceived child weight (p = 0.093), concern over child’s weight (p = 0.152), restriction (p = 0.234), pressure to eat (p = 0.072), and monitoring (p = 0.782)) among mothers with obesity vs. mothers without obesity.	Maternal BMI does not appear to have a significant influence on FPPs.
				25–29.9	134
				≥30	316
Corsini et al. (2010), Australia [67]	Cross-sectional	To develop and validate the Toddler Snack Food Feeding Questionnaire (TSFFQ).	Sample 2: 216 mothers	≤18.5	2	4–5 year olds	TFSSQ and CFQ subscales: Restriction, Pressure to Eat and Monitoring	Sample 2 (pre-schoolers, past practices) Mothers without obesity allowed access to snack foods significantly less (p = 0.001), and implemented rules around snacking more (approaching statistical significance, p = 0.022) compared to mothers with obesity. No significant differences were found on any other constructs (p values not reported).	The TSFFQ is a useful measure that could be used in addition to other measures of parental feeding control.
				18.5–24.9	120
				25–29.9	45
				≥30	37
				NR	12
Costa et al. (2011), Brazil [68]	Cross-sectional	To examine parents feeding attitudes, parent BMI, and children’s weight status.	105 Parents/Care-givers	<25	68	6–10 year olds	Portuguese CFQ	Significant differences in perceived parent weight (p = 0.001), concern about child weight (p = 0.006), and restriction (p = 0.023) between parents with healthy-weight vs. parents with overweight/obesity. No significant differences in perceived responsibility (p = 0.861), perceived child weight (p = 0.844), pressure to eat (p = 0.233), and monitoring (p = 0.21) between parents with healthy-weight and parents with overweight/obesity.	Perceptions and attitudes of parents may independently be associated with overweight in children aged 6–10.
Costa et al. (2011), Brazil [68]	Cross-sectional		105 Parents/Care-givers	>25	37	6–10 year olds	Portuguese CFQ
Francis et al. (2001), USA [69]	Cross-sectional	To explore the predictors of the use of maternal restriction and pressure FPPs.	196 mothers	<25	92	5 year olds	CFQ subscales: Perceived child overweight, Child overweight, Restriction, and Pressure to Eat	There were no significant differences in the level of CFQ restriction and CFQ pressure to eat between mothers with healthy-weight and mothers with overweight. Among mothers with overweight, the use of restriction was significantly predicted by concern for daughters’ weight (p ≤ 0.05); pressure to eat was significantly predicted by daughters’ adiposity (p ≤ 0.05) and mothers’ concern for daughters’ weight (p ≤ 0.05).	Maternal weight status does not influence FPPs.
Francis et al. (2001), USA [69]	Cross-sectional		196 mothers	≥25	104	5 year olds			Maternal weight status does not influence FPPs.
Francis and Birch (2005), USA [70]	Longitudinal	To explore restriction on food intake, the influence of eating in the absence of hunger on BMI, and maternal weight status as a mediator on these relationships.	171 mothers	≤24.9	80	5–9 year olds	CFQ subscale: Restriction	Overall, there was no significant difference in the amount of restriction used by mothers with overweight vs. mothers with healthy weight. Among mothers with overweight, use of restrictive FPPs significantly predicted daughters’ eating in the absence of hunger (p < 0.05).	There is no specific feeding style associated with mothers with overweight and obesity.
Francis and Birch (2005), USA [70]	Longitudinal		171 mothers	≥25	91	5–9 year olds	CFQ subscale: Restriction
Haycraft, Karasouli and Meyer (2017), UK [71]	Cross-sectional	To compare maternal FPPs by maternal weight status.	437 mothers	19–24.9	249	2–6 year olds	CFPQ	Significantly higher reports of child control (p < 0.001) and lower reports of encouraging balance and variety (p = 0.029), environment (p = 0.021) and modelling (p < 0.001) among mothers with overweight/obesity vs. mothers with healthy-weight. There were no significant differences between mothers with healthy-weight/overweight and obesity on any other CFPQ subscales (involvement, monitoring, pressure to eat, restriction for health, restrictions for weight control, food as a reward, emotion regulation).	Mothers with overweight and obesity engage in fewer healthy FPPs when compared to a healthy weight sample of mothers.
Haycraft, Karasouli and Meyer (2017), UK [71]	Cross-sectional	To compare maternal FPPs by maternal weight status.	437 mothers	≥25	188	2–6 year olds	CFPQ
Jingxiong et al. (2008), China [72]	Cross-sectional	To examine the relationship between FPPs and parental characteristics.	430 mothers	≤24	323	1–3 year olds	An interview to obtain information on: parent education level, family income, and FPPs (including a 24-h dietary recall)	In comparison to mothers with healthy-weight, mothers with overweight/obesity worry significantly more about their child overeating (p = 0.004) and that their child would develop obesity (p = 0.003). Significantly more mothers with overweight/obesity controlled feeding with a regular schedule in comparison to healthy-weight mothers (p = 0.017) and used food to soothe the child significantly less than healthy-weight mothers (p = 0.008).	Mothers with overweight report controlling child feeding with a regular feeding schedule and soothed children using food less often than mothers with healthy-weight.
Jingxiong et al. (2008), China [72]	Cross-sectional		430 mothers	≥24	107	1–3 year olds
Kröller and Warschburger (2008), Germany [73]	Cross-sectional	To explore the impact of various FPPs on child’s food intake and the influence of socio-economic status and weight on the use of different types of FPPs.	219 mothers	≤24.9	104	3–6 year olds	Items from the CFQ, CFSQ and newly developed questions from interviews with mothers and experts	No significant differences in FPPs between mothers with healthy weight and overweight/obesity. Maternal weight (underweight/healthy weight/overweight/obesity) had no significant effect on the use of FPPs (p = 0.60).	Maternal weight does not influence the use of FPPs.
Kröller and Warschburger (2008), Germany [73]	Cross-sectional		219 mothers	≥25	111	3–6 year olds			Maternal weight does not influence the use of FPPs.
Lewis and Worobey (2011), USA [74]	Laboratory observation	To explore maternal control and whether feeding style is different between healthy and overweight mothers.	20 mothers	<25	10	2 year olds	CFQ, food record, observed behaviours and video recordings.	No significant differences in pressure (p = 0.56) and restriction (p = 0.28), observed feeding style pressure (p = 0.49), and observed feeding style restriction (p = 0.28) between mothers with healthy weight and mothers with overweight/obesity. Mothers with overweight/obesity demonstrated significantly more concern about their own weight (p = 0.05) than mothers with healthy weight. Maternal BMI was not correlated with reported or observed feeding styles.	Lack of association between reported and observed feeding styles.
Lewis and Worobey (2011), USA [74]	Laboratory observation		20 mothers	≥25	10	2 year olds	CFQ, food record, observed behaviours and video recordings.
Lipowska et al. (2018), Poland [75]	Cross-sectional	To explore nutritional knowledge, eating habits, and appetite traits among children with and without excess body fat in the context of FPPs and body-fat status.	315 mothers; 276 fathers	Healthy * Mothers Fathers	190 109	5 year olds	PFSQ	Mothers with healthy body fat use encouragement to eat significantly less than mothers with an overfat body status (p < 0.05). Fathers with healthy body fat use control over eating significantly more than fathers with an overfat body status (p < 0.05). There were no significant findings on food as a reward and emotional feeding and parental body fat status (p values not reported).	Mothers with an overfat body status do not necessarily transmit unhealthy eating behaviours to their children.
Lipowska et al. (2018), Poland [75]	Cross-sectional		315 mothers; 276 fathers	Overfat * Mothers Fathers	125 167	5 year olds	PFSQ
Lumeng and Burke (2006), USA [76]	Laboratory observation	To explore if there is an association between maternal prompting to eat, child compliance and mother and child weight status.	71 mothers	<30	45	3–6 year olds	Parental prompting and child compliance	There was no significant difference found in prompting child to eat (p = 0.55) between mothers with and without obesity.	Greater maternal prompting was predicted by a younger child age, a novel food, more bites of food taken by the mother and low maternal education.
Lumeng and Burke (2006), USA [76]	Laboratory observation		71 mothers	≥30	26	3–6 year olds	Parental prompting and child compliance
Powers et al. (2006), USA [77]	Cross-sectional	To explore the association of maternal feeding practices with maternal BMI and child eating behaviours.	290 mothers	<24.9	77	2–4.9 year olds	CFQ subscales: Restriction and Pressure to eat, PFSQ subscale: Control	There were no significant differences found with between maternal BMI and maternal FPPs: restriction (p = 0.63), pressure to eat (p = 0.33), and control (p = 0.62).	There is no particular feeding style shared among mothers with overweight or obesity.
				25–29.9	86
				30–39.9	97
				≥40.0	30
Raaijmakers et al. (2014), The Netherlands [78]	Cross-sectional	To explore the use of instrumental and emotional feeding practices between main meals.	359 mothers	≤18.49	11	4–12 year olds	Self-constructed instrument developed from interviews with mothers and health promotion experts	Using food as a reward (26.8% of mothers with obesity) was reported more than use of food as a punishment (18.3% of mothers with obesity) and as a comfort (16.9% of mothers with obesity) with their child. No significant association between emotional and instrumental child feeding practices and maternal BMI.	Mothers offered energy dense and nutrient poor food items in emotional and instrumental child feeding practices.
				18.5–24.9	175
				25–29.9	101
				≥30	71
				Over-weight (≥25)	5
				Obese	10
Roberts, Goodman and Musher-Eizenmann (2018), USA [79]	Cross-sectional	To investigate socioeconomic status, parental BMI and dieting status on the use of FPPs.	376 mothers; 118 fathers	18.5–24.9	223	2.5–7.5 year olds	CFPQ, FSQ, MioH, and newly developed questions	Post-hoc analysis revealed that in comparison to parents with healthy-weight and overweight, parents with obesity use significantly less structure FPPs. There was no significant difference between parents with healthy-weight and overweight. There was no significant post-hoc differences between parents with healthy-weight, overweight, and obesity and autonomy promotion (irrespective of a significant main effect) and coercive control.	When compared to other parental characteristics such as parental BMI, socioeconomic status has a small influence on the use of FPPs.
				25–29.9	149
				≥ 30	120
Russell et al. (2018), Australia and New Zealand [80]	Cross-sectional (secondary data analysis)	To explore FPPs among parents of toddlers and pre-schoolers and to examine the how FPPs differ by parent and child demographic data.	751 mothers	≤25	383	4–6 year olds	CFPQ	Among pre-schoolers (and adjusted for receiving a nutrition intervention before the measurement of FPPs), the odds of mothers with obesity using CFPQ food as a reward and CFPQ child control were higher compared to mothers with healthy-weight (OR = 1.13, 95% CI 0.94, 1.36; OR = 1.22, 95% CI 0.71, 2.09). The odds of mothers with obesity using CFPQ restriction for health and pressure to eat were lower compared to mothers with healthy-weight (OR = 0.86, 95% CI 0.72, 1.02; OR = 0.82, 95% CI 0.73, 0.91).	Nutrition interventions are unlikely to detect change in targeted FPPs since parents already report best practices, such as modelling and a healthy food environment.
				25 ≤ 30	186
				≥30	152
				NR	30
Wardle et al. (2001), UK [81]	Cross-sectional	To identify any differences in feeding styles among mothers with obesity and normal weight.	Families with healthy-weight, over-weight and obesity	≤25	114	4–5 year olds	PFSQ	Mothers with obesity reported significantly less control over their children’s eating (p = 0.01) than mothers with healthy-weight. There were no significant differences in reports of emotional feeding, instrumental feeding, and prompting/encouragement to eat.	No difference in use of emotional, instrumental, and prompting/encouragement to eat parental feeding styles among mothers with healthy-weight, and obesity.
Wardle et al. (2001), UK [81]	Cross-sectional		Families with healthy-weight, over-weight and obesity	Mothers ≥28.5 Fathers ≥25	100	4–5 year olds	PFSQ
Wendt et al. (2015), Germany [82]	Laboratory observation	To explore parent-child interactions during feeding or joint eating and investigate the differences between mothers and fathers and parental weight.	148 mothers; 148 fathers	≤18.5 Mothers Fathers	4 2	7 months–3.9 year olds	Observation rated using the CFS	No significant differences found in CFS subscales: dyadic reciprocity, dyadic conflict, talk/distraction, struggle for control, and non-contingency among mothers with healthy-weight, overweight, and obesity. There were also no significant differences found among fathers with healthy-weight, overweight, and obesity apart from struggle for control. Fathers with overweight demonstrated a significantly higher amount of struggle for control than fathers with healthy-weight and obesity (p = 0.003).	Parents with healthy-weight, overweight, and obesity parents show the same ability to show relatedness, interpret child cues, and affective engagement during feeding and joint eating.
				18.5–24.9 Mothers Fathers	83 77
				25–29.9 Mothers Fathers	17 32
				≥30 Mothers Fathers	44 37
Williams et al. (2017), USA [83]	Cross-sectional	To explore parental BMI and family behaviours associated with childhood obesity in a community sample.	143 parents	≤25	70	9–10 year olds	PSEAS	Underweight and healthy-weight parents monitor their child’s diet significantly more than parents with overweight and obesity (p < 0.000). There were no significant differences among parental BMI and discipline (children are disciplined for unhealthy eating), control, limit setting (boundaries with unhealthy eating), and reinforcement (praise for eating healthy foods).	Lower parental BMI is associated with a healthier home food environment.
Williams et al. (2017), USA [83]	Cross-sectional		143 parents	≥25	73	9–10 year olds	PSEAS
Berge et al. (2015), USA [85]	Cross-sectional	To explore food restriction and pressure to eat by parent and adolescent weight concordance and discordance.	3252 parents	≤25	1444	Adoles-cents (mean age 14.4 years old)	CFQ subscales: Pressure to eat and Restriction	Parents with healthy-weight reported significantly higher levels of pressure to eat, compared to parents with overweight and obesity (p < 0.05). Parents with overweight/obesity reported significantly more food restriction compared to parent with healthy-weight (p < 0.05).	Use of FPPs are as a result of parental weight status and their adolescent’s weight status.
Berge et al. (2015), USA [85]	Cross-sectional		3252 parents	≥25	2108	Adoles-cents (mean age 14.4 years old)	CFQ subscales: Pressure to eat and Restriction

* Determined using a segmental body composition monitor. Parental body fat percentage was calculated individually due to the differences in age. FPP: Food Parenting Practice, NR: Not Reported, BMI, Body Mass Index, PFQ: Pre-schooler Feeding Questionnaire, CFQ: Child Feeding Questionnaire, CFS: Chatoor Feeding Scale, PFSQ: Parental Feeding Style Questionnaire, TSFFQ: Toddler Snack Food Feeding Questionnaire, CFPQ: Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire, CFSQ: Caregiver’s Feeding Styles Questionnaire, PSEAS: Parenting Strategies for Eating and Activity Scale, FSQ: Feeding Strategies Questionnaire, MioH: Meals in our Household, OR: Odds Ratio, CI: Confidence Interval.