Table 5.

Final multivariable multilevel logistic models regressing individual and place covariates on the odds of having an HIV test (past year) in a sample of self-reported HIV-negative PWID (N = 7477), drawn from the 2012 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National HIV Behavioral Surveillance

Individual- and place-level characteristics	Model A: full final model, including possible individual-level mediators		Model B: full final model, with age gender only
	AOR	p value	AOR	p value
Individual-level
Age (1 SD = 11.2 years)	0.78	< 0.0005	0.76	< 0.0005
Gender (ref = female)	0.93	0.21	0.91	0.10
Annual household Income (1 SD = $15,000)	1.03	0.23
High-school graduate/General equivalency diploma (ref: no diploma/GED)	1.13	0.03
Employed full time (ref: not employed full time)	0.93	0.61
Currently homeless (ref: not currently homeless)	1.20	0.001
Injection daily (ref: less than daily)	1.11	0.08
Years since first injection (1 SD = 13.6 years)	0.98	0.59
Race/ethnicity
Black/white	0.65	0.14	0.67	0.17
Latino/White	0.89	0.77	0.88	0.73
Place-level
Metropolitan statistical area (MSA)
Social
Male:female sex ratio:more females versus equity	1.81	< 0.0005	1.78	< 0.0005
Economic
Median Income (USD)(1 SD = $14,522)	1.30	0.01	1.30	0.01
Health and law enforcement interventions
Per capita expenditures corrections (USD) (1 SD = $44.7)
Interaction effects
White (ref)	1.09	0.28	1.10	0.24
Black/white	1.15	0.02	1.14	0.02
Latino/White	1.30	0.01	1.28	0.02
County
Health and law enforcement interventions
Percent of residents without health insurance (1 SD = 8.7%)
Interaction effects
White (ref)	1.04	0.79	1.04	0.77
Black/white	1.16	0.08	1.14	0.11
Latino/White	0.89	0.19	0.89	0.19
Random intercept	Estimate	SE (Est)	Estimate	SE (Est)
MSA	0.01	0.06	0.02	0.05
County	0.07	0.06	0.06	0.06
Zip code	0.02	0.02	0.03	0.02

Hierarchical generalized linear models were applied to account for place-based clustering