Table 7.

Results of three geographic-scale specific, multivariable multilevel models regressing the odds of past-year HIV testing on individual race/ethnicity and place-based covariates in a sample of self-reported HIV-negative people who inject drugs (PWID; N = 7477), drawn from the 2012 National HIV Behavioral Surveillance. Hierarchical generalized linear models were applied to account for place-based clustering

Geographic scale	Place exposure	OR	p value
ZIP code	Race/ethnicity
	Ratio black/white	1.04	0.67
	Ratio Latino/white	0.92	0.37
	Spatial access to substance abuse treatment programs (1 SD = 2.2 units)
	Interaction effects
	Ratio black/white	1.07	0.32
	Ratio Latino/white	1.27	0.002
	Race specific effects
	White	1.16	0.01
	Black	1.23	< 0.0005
	Latino	1.47	< 0.0005
		Estimate	SE(Est)
	Random intercept	0.21	0.04
County	Race/ethnicity
	Ratio black/white	0.88	0.53
	Ratio Latino/white	1.55	0.05
	Arrest rate for possession for any drug, per 1000 (1 SD = 6)	1.28	0.006
	Percent of residents without health insurance (1 SD = 8.7%)
	Interaction effects
	Ratio black/white	1.04	0.62
	Ratio Latino/White	0.83	0.02
	Race-specific effects
	White	0.84	0.05
	Black	0.87	0.12
	Latino	0.70	< 0.0005
	Percent of residents living in a medically underserved area (1 SD = 21.1%)
	Ratio black/white	1.13	0.02
	Ratio Latino/white	1.22	0.07
	Race-specific effects
	White	0.95	0.58
	Black	1.07	0.40
	Latino	1.16	0.25
		Estimate	SE (Est)
	Random intercept	0.15	0.05
MSA	Race/ethnicity
	Ratio black/white	0.74	0.04
	Ratio Latino/white	0.50	0.002
	Per capita expenditures corrections (USD) (1 SD = $44.7)
	Interaction effects
	Ratio black/white	1.16	0.01
	Ratio Latino/white	1.38	0.001
	Race specific estimates
	White	1.04	0.59
	Black	1.20	0.01
	Latino	1.43	0.001
	Male:female sex ratio: more females vs equity	1.62	0.001
	Median income (USD) (1SD=$14,522)	1.24	0.001
		Estimate	SE (Est)
	Random intercept	0.07	0.03