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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2020 Feb 1.
Published in final edited form as: Biol Psychiatry. 2018 Aug 17;85(3):237–247. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.07.027

Figure 8. Hypothesized LC-vPAG arousal circuit.

Figure 8.

The LC releases NE in the vPAG, which activates astrocytic α1ARs. Astrocytes could release gliotransmitters or otherwise act upon neuronal glutamate terminals to elicit glutamate release in an action potential-independent mechanism, or astrocytes could release glutamate to directly activate DA neurons. Then, glutamate via AMPA receptors drives the activity of wake-promoting vPAGDA neurons to promote arousal. These vPAGDA neurons project to and modulate other brain regions involved in arousal.