Table 1.
Association between maternal psychological distress at 5 years and covariates at 9 months and 7 years with child overweight or obesity at 11 years (n = 9206)
| Child BMI status at 11 years | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Normal BMI | Overweight | Obese | Total | |||||
| % | 95% CI | % | 95% CI | % | 95% CI | % | 95% CI | |
| Maternal psychological distress p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| None/low | 68.4 | [66.9, 69.8] | 65 | [62.2, 67.8] | 58 | [53.3, 62.7] | 67 | [65.7, 68.3] |
| Medium | 28.2 | [26.9, 29.5] | 31.9 | [29.4, 34.5] | 35 | [30.7, 39.3] | 29.4 | [28.2, 30.6] |
| Severe | 3.4 | [2.9, 4.0] | 3 | [2.1, 3.9] | 7 | [4.3, 9.6] | 3.6 | [3.1, 4.1] |
| Child’s sex p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| Male | 53.1 | [51.5, 54.7] | 47 | [43.9, 50.1] | 49.6 | [45.3, 53.9] | 51.5 | [50.1, 53.0] |
| Female | 46.9 | [45.3, 48.5] | 53 | [49.9, 56.1] | 50.4 | [46.1, 54.7] | 48.5 | [47.0, 50.0] |
| Child’s ethnicity p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| White | 90.9 | [89.2, 92.5] | 87.6 | [84.7, 90.6] | 86.2 | [81.9, 90.5] | 89.9 | [89.0, 91.8] |
| Mixed | 2.6 | [0.2, 3.2] | 3.4 | [2.3, 4.4] | 3.3 | [1.6, 4.9] | 2.8 | [2.3, 3.3] |
| Indian | 1.6 | [1.0, 2.1] | 1.9 | [1.1, 2.7] | 0.8 | [0.0, 1.6] | 1.6 | [1.1, 2.1] |
| Pakistani or Bangladeshi | 2.3 | [1.4, 3.2] | 2.9 | [1.4, 4.4] | 4 | [1.9, 6.1] | 2.5 | [1.5, 3.5] |
| Black or Black British | 1.9 | [1.2, 2.7] | 3.3 | [1.7, 5.0] | 5.5 | [2.3, 8.6] | 2.5 | [1.4, 3.5] |
| Other | 0.7 | [0.6, 1.1] | 0.8 | [0.3, 1.3] | 0.3 | [−0.0, 0.5] | 0.7 | [0.4, 1.0] |
| Early years factors | ||||||||
| Maternal BMI before birth of child p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| BMI (means) | 23.1 | [22.9, 23.2] | 25.1 | [24.8, 25.5] | 27.4 | [26.8, 27.9] | 23.8 | (23.6, 23.9) |
| Mother smoked during pregnancy p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| No | 65.8 | [64.1, 67.6] | 60.4 | [57.7, 63.1] | 54 | [48.8, 59.2] | 63.9 | [62.4, 65.5] |
| Yes | 34.2 | [32.4, 35.9] | 39.6 | [36.9, 42.3] | 46 | [40.8, 51.2] | 36.1 | [34.5, 37.6] |
| Child birthweight p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| Birthweight (z score, means) | −0.07 | [−.10, −.04] | 0.04 | [−.02, .10] | 0.06 | [−.04, .17] | −0.04 | [−.07, −.01] |
| Duration of breastfeeding p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| Never | 30.8 | [28.6, 33.0] | 34.9 | [31.9, 37.9] | 42.7 | [37.3, 48.0] | 32.4 | [30.4, 34.5] |
| 1 week | 11.1 | [10.0, 12.2] | 12 | [10.4, 13.6] | 12.3 | [9.2, 15.3] | 11.4 | [10.4, 12.3] |
| 1–6 weeks | 12.8 | [11.8, 13.8] | 12.5 | [10.7, 14.3] | 14 | [10.5, 17.5] | 12.8 | [11.9, 13.7] |
| 6 weeks − 4 months | 16.5 | [15.3, 17.7] | 15.5 | [13.6, 17.5] | 14.3 | [11.0, 17.6] | 16.1 | [15.1, 17.2] |
| Over 4 months | 28.8 | [26.6, 31.0] | 25.1 | [22.6, 27.6] | 16.8 | [13.1, 20.5] | 27.2 | [25.3, 29.2] |
| Child introduced to solids before 4 months p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| No | 65 | [63.3, 66.7] | 61.2 | [58.7, 63.7] | 54.6 | [49.4, 59.8] | 63.5 | [62.1, 65.0] |
| Yes | 35 | [32.4, 35.9] | 38.8 | [36.3, 41.3] | 45.4 | [40.2, 50.6] | 36.5 | [35.0, 37.9] |
| Socio-demographic factors | ||||||||
| Maternal highest qualification (9 months) p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| A/AS/S levels and above | 40.9 | [38.2, 43.6] | 34.2 | [31.2, 37.2] | 23.5 | [19.2, 27.8] | 38.4 | [36.0, 40.8] |
| O levels/GCSEs A-C | 36.1 | [34.1, 38.1] | 39.5 | [36.9, 42.1] | 36 | [31.6, 40.5] | 36.9 | [35.2, 38.6] |
| O levels/GCSEs D-G and below | 23 | [21.2, 24.8] | 26.2 | [23.8, 28.7] | 40.5 | [35.3, 45.6] | 24.8 | [23.1, 26.5] |
| Family structure (9 months) p < 0.01 | ||||||||
| Couple family | 86.2 | [85.0, 87.4] | 84.5 | [82.3, 86.8] | 80 | [76.0, 83.9] | 85.4 | [84.3, 86.6] |
| Lone parent family | 13.8 | [12.6, 15.0] | 15.5 | [13.2, 17.7] | 20 | [16.1, 24.0] | 14.6 | [13.4, 15.7] |
| Household income (9 months) p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| Lowest quintile | 18.1 | [16.4, 19.8] | 20.6 | [18.0, 23.3] | 26 | [21.5, 30.5] | 19.1 | [17.5, 20.8] |
| Second quintile | 18.5 | [17.0, 20.0] | 22.7 | [20.3, 25.2] | 27.5 | [23.2, 31.8] | 20 | [18.6, 21.4] |
| Third quintile | 20.6 | [19.1, 22.1] | 21 | [18.8, 23.1] | 20.2 | [16.4, 24.1] | 20.6 | [19.4, 21.9] |
| Fourth quintile | 21 | [19.6, 22.4] | 20.7 | [18.5, 23.0] | 17.1 | [13.6, 20.6] | 20.7 | [19.5, 22.0] |
| Highest quintile | 21.8 | [19.2, 24.4] | 14.9 | [12.9, 16.9] | 9.2 | [6.6, 11.8] | 19.5 | [17.3, 21.7] |
| Housing tenure (9 months) p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| Mortgage/own outright | 64.7 | [62.4, 66.9] | 57.8 | [54.7, 61.0] | 50.9 | [45.8, 55.9] | 62.3 | [60.2, 64.5] |
| Private rental | 8 | [6.8, 9.3] | 8.6 | [6.9, 10.2] | 7.4 | [4.5, 10.4] | 8.1 | [7.0, 9.2] |
| Local authority/housing assoc. rental | 22.5 | [20.4, 24.6] | 27 | [24.0, 30.0] | 34.9 | [29.8, 40.0] | 24.2 | [22.2, 26.3] |
| Other | 4.8 | [4.1, 5.5] | 6.6 | [5.1, 8.2] | 6.8 | [4.3, 9.3] | 5.3 | [4.6, 6.0] |
| Dietary factors | ||||||||
| Portions of fruit consumed by child/typical day (7 years) p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| 3 or more | 54.9 | [53.1, 56.7] | 52.3 | [49.5, 55.0] | 44.1 | [39.1, 49.1] | 53.6 | [52.1, 55.2] |
| Two | 25.1 | [23.8, 26.4] | 26.4 | [24.1, 28.7] | 29.1 | [24.7, 33.5] | 25.6 | [24.5, 26.8] |
| One or none | 20 | [18.7, 21.4] | 21.3 | [18.9, 23.8] | 26.8 | [22.7, 31.0] | 20.7 | [19.5, 22.0] |
| Breakfast consumption/week (7 years) p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| 0–3 days | 2.1 | [1.6, 2.6] | 3.4 | [2.4, 4.3] | 5.8 | [3.5, 8.1] | 2.6 | [2.2, 3.1] |
| 4–6 days | 3 | [2.5, 3.4] | 4.1 | [3.0, 5.2] | 5.7 | [3.7, 7.6] | 3.4 | [2.9, 3.8] |
| 7 days | 94.9 | [94.3, 95.6] | 92.5 | [91.0, 94.0] | 88.5 | [85.8, 91.2] | 94 | [93.4, 94.6] |
| Main drinks between meals (7 years) p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| Other drinks | 58.4 | [56.0, 60.7] | 55 | [52.1, 57.9] | 49.8 | [45.4, 55.1] | 57.1 | [55.0, 59.2] |
| Sweetened drinks | 41.6 | [39.3, 44.0] | 45 | [42.1, 47.9] | 50.2 | [44.9, 55.6] | 42.9 | [40.8, 45.0] |
| Main snack between meals (7 years) p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| Crisps and other similar snacks | 14.2 | [13.0, 15.3] | 17.8 | [15.6, 19.9] | 22.2 | [18.0, 26.5] | 15.5 | [14.5, 16.4] |
| Cakes and sweet biscuits | 17.5 | [16.2, 18.8] | 13.1 | [11.2, 15.1] | 16.4 | [12.9, 20.0] | 16.5 | [15.4, 17.5] |
| Fruit or vegetables | 40.7 | [39.2, 42.3] | 39.2 | [36.3, 42.0] | 33 | [28.4, 37.5] | 39.9 | [38.6, 41.2] |
| Bread and similar items | 7.8 | [6.8, 8.7] | 7.8 | [6.3, 9.3] | 8.4 | [5.8, 11.0] | 7.8 | [7.0, 8.7] |
| Sweets or chocolate | 8.6 | [7.7, 9.5] | 8.3 | [6.8, 9.8] | 8.9 | [6.3, 11.5] | 8.6 | [7.8, 9.3] |
| Dairy products | 9.3 | [8.5, 10.2] | 11.9 | [10.0, 13.8] | 9 | [5.8, 12.2] | 9.9 | [9.1, 10.6] |
| Does not eat between meals | 1.8 | [1.5, 2.2] | 1.9 | [1.1, 2.7] | 2 | [0.7, 3.4] | 1.9 | [1. 5, 2.2] |
| Physical activity factors | ||||||||
| Number of days/week child participated in organised sports/activities (7 years) p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| 3 or more days/week | 23.3 | [21.7, 24.9] | 18.7 | [16.5, 20.8] | 12.8 | [9.6, 15.9] | 21.6 | [20.3, 23.0] |
| 2 days/week | 22.4 | [21.0, 23.7] | 21.9 | [19.7, 24.1] | 18.3 | [14.8, 21.9] | 22 | [20.9, 23.2] |
| 1 day/week | 26.4 | [25.1, 27.8] | 27.7 | [25.1, 30.2] | 26.7 | [22.6, 30.8] | 26.7 | [25.6, 27.9] |
| Less often or not at all | 27.9 | [25.8, 30.0] | 31.7 | [28.9, 34.6] | 42.2 | [37.2, 47.2] | 29.6 | [27.8, 31.4] |
| Number of days/week child participated in non-organised physical activity (7 years) p < 0.05 | ||||||||
| 3 or more days/week | 81.4 | [80.0, 82.8] | 79.3 | [76.8, 81.8] | 76 | [71.8, 80.1] | 80.6 | [79.3, 81.9] |
| 2 days/week | 7.9 | [7.1, 8.7] | 8.4 | [6.9, 9.9] | 7.7 | [5.3, 10.1] | 8 | [7.3, 8.7] |
| 1 day/week | 5.4 | [4.7, 6.0] | 6.2 | [4.9, 7.5] | 7.3 | [4.9, 9.7] | 5.7 | [5.1, 6.3] |
| Less often or not at all | 5.3 | [4.5, 6.1] | 6.1 | [4.7, 7.5] | 9 | [6.2, 11.8] | 5.7 | [4.9, 6.4] |
| Frequency mother participated in active play with child (7 years) p < 0.01 | ||||||||
| Weekly | 51.3 | [49.7, 52.9] | 46.8 | [43.9, 49.7] | 45.5 | [40.3, 50.7] | 50 | [48.6, 51.3] |
| Once or twice a month | 21.8 | [20.6, 23.0] | 21.9 | [19.8, 24.1] | 21.4 | [17.3, 25.4] | 21.8 | [20.8, 22.8] |
| Less often than once a month | 15 | [14.1, 15.8] | 16.4 | [14.5, 18.3] | 15.4 | [12.0, 18.7] | 15.3 | [14.5, 16.1] |
| Not at all | 12 | [10.9, 13.0] | 14.9 | [12.9, 17.0] | 17.8 | [13.4, 22.1] | 13 | [12.0, 13.9] |
| Transport to school (7 years) p = 0.581 | ||||||||
| Motorised | 49.3 | [47.6, 51.1] | 49.6 | [47.1, 52.1] | 46.7 | [41.7, 51.7] | 49.2 | [47.7, 50.8] |
| Active (Walking/ cycling) | 50.7 | [48.9, 52.4] | 50.4 | [47.9, 52.9] | 53.3 | [48.3, 58.3] | 50.8 | [49.2, 52.3] |
| Regular weekday term-time bedtime (7 years) p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| Before 19:30 | 11.7 | [10.6, 12.8] | 8.6 | [7.0, 10.3] | 9 | [6.1, 11.9] | 10.8 | [9.9, 11.8] |
| 19:30–20:00 | 25.9 | [24.3, 27.4] | 20.7 | [18.5, 23.0] | 18.5 | [14.5, 22.5] | 24.3 | [23.0, 25.6] |
| 20:00–20:30 | 35.4 | [33.9, 36.8] | 36.6 | [34.0, 39.1] | 32.7 | [28.1, 37.2] | 35.5 | [34.2, 36.7] |
| 20:30–21:00 | 14.4 | [13.3, 15.5] | 17.6 | [15.5, 19.6] | 15.7 | [12.5, 19.0] | 15.2 | [14.2, 16.2] |
| 21:00+ | 9.1 | [8.2, 10.0] | 13.2 | [11.5, 15.0] | 17.1 | [13.2, 21.1] | 10.5 | [9.6, 11.4] |
| No regular bedtime | 3.6 | [3.0, 4.1] | 3.3 | [2.3, 4.2] | 7 | [4.6, 9.4] | 3.7 | [3.3, 4.2] |
| Number of hours a day child watched television/videos (7 years) p < 0.001 | ||||||||
| None or up to 1 h | 21.3 | [19.7, 22.9] | 16.6 | [14.7, 18.6] | 14.7 | [11.1, 18.2] | 19.8 | [18.5, 21.1] |
| More than 1 h, less than 3 h | 64.6 | [63.0, 66.3] | 65.9 | [63.5, 68.3] | 64.9 | [59.9, 70.0] | 64.9 | [63.6, 66.3] |
| 3 h or more | 14.1 | [12.6, 15.6] | 17.5 | [15.5, 19.5] | 20.4 | [16.4, 24.4] | 15.2 | [14.0, 16.5] |
| Number of hours a day child used computer (7 years) p < 0.01 | ||||||||
| None or up to 1 h | 65.4 | [63.7, 67.1] | 62.6 | [60.0, 65.3] | 58.8 | [54.1, 63.5] | 64.4 | [62.8, 65.9] |
| More than 1 h, less than 3 h | 30.5 | [28.9, 32.1] | 33.7 | [31.1, 36.4] | 36.5 | [31.9, 41.0] | 31.6 | [30.1, 33.0] |
| 3 h or more | 4.1 | [3.4, 4.8] | 3.7 | [2.7, 4.6] | 4.7 | [2.7, 6.8] | 4.1 | [3.4, 4.7] |