Figure 2.

Low solid adhesion surface design guide, which categorizes fouling materials according to their length scale. Fouling length scales are indicated for bacterial cells [41], biofilm thickness [30,42], algal spores [43,44], diatoms [45], barnacles, wax [46] and ice [47–49]. Elastic modulus values for bacterial cells [50], biofilms [30–32], algal spores [33], diatoms [45], barnacles [34], wax [51,52], ice [37,53], clathrates [36,54] and inorganic scale [55,56] are also provided in order to indicate whether the effects of surface chemistry or surface elastic modulus will be most potent in minimizing the fouling of that material. Subset images A, B and C illustrate typical micro-, meso- and macro-scale ice fouling, respectively. Subset image A is an image provided by NASA, and is in the public domain. Subset image B was taken by the authors. Subset image C is adapted with permissions from [57], copyright © 2013 American Chemical Society.