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Different possible pathways for preparation of profiled ion exchange membranes: (a) hot pressing; (b) membrane casting (Adapted from Reference [22]); (c) Direct 3D printing (Reproduced with permission from Reference [52]. Copyright 2016 American Chemical Society.); (d) 3D printing on top of a commercial membrane (Reproduced with permission from Reference [53]. Copyright 2018 Timon Rijnaarts).
