Table 3.
Participant characteristics at preschool (T1) and behavioral problems in first grade (T2).
| Participant Characteristics | Total | Boys | Girls | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Internalizing Problems | Externalizing Problems | Internalizing Problems | Externalizing Problems | Internalizing Problems | Externalizing Problems | |||||||||||||
| Mean | SD | p | Mean | SD | p | Mean | SD | p | Mean | SD | p | Mean | SD | p | Mean | SD | p | |
| Sex | ||||||||||||||||||
| Boys | 3.78 | 2.96 | 0.612 | 5.7 | 3.42 | <0.001 *** | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Girls | 3.85 | 3.04 | 4.50 | 3.05 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||||||
| Family structure | ||||||||||||||||||
| Single-parent family | 4.31 | 3.33 | 0.044 * | 6.18 | 4.02 | 0.006 ** | 3.95 | 3.23 | 0.646 | 6.41 | 3.98 | 0.176 | 4.78 | 3.42 | 0.036 * | 5.89 | 4.09 | 0.022 * |
| Two-parent family | 3.78 | 2.98 | 5.06 | 3.24 | 3.77 | 2.94 | 5.68 | 3.37 | 3.80 | 3.01 | 4.42 | 2.96 | ||||||
| Attending institution | ||||||||||||||||||
| Nursery school | 3.94 | 2.99 | 0.048 * | 5.35 | 3.38 | 0.004 ** | 3.91 | 2.95 | 0.169 | 5.96 | 3.47 | 0.039 * | 3.97 | 3.04 | 0.228 | 4.71 | 3.16 | 0.036 * |
| Kindergarten | 3.67 | 3.00 | 4.88 | 3.20 | 3.63 | 2.97 | 5.47 | 3.35 | 3.72 | 3.04 | 4.26 | 2.90 | ||||||
| Annual household income (in millions of JPY) | ||||||||||||||||||
| <3 | 4.59 | 3.41 | <0.001 *** | 5.85 | 3.58 | <0.001 *** | 4.79 | 3.29 | 0.006 ** | 6.18 | 3.51 | 0.135 | 4.30 | 3.58 | 0.002 ** | 5.40 | 3.65 | <0.001 *** |
| 3–5 | 3.96 | 2.99 | 5.31 | 3.25 | 3.72 | 2.88 | 5.82 | 3.30 | 4.22 | 3.09 | 4.78 | 3.10 | ||||||
| 6–8 | 3.55 | 2.87 | 4.99 | 3.16 | 3.62 | 2.85 | 5.67 | 3.38 | 3.50 | 2.90 | 4.36 | 2.79 | ||||||
| ≥9 | 3.46 | 2.95 | 4.37 | 3.21 | 3.60 | 3.13 | 5.19 | 3.54 | 3.30 | 2.75 | 3.52 | 2.59 | ||||||
| Maternal education level | ||||||||||||||||||
| Compulsory education | 5.44 | 3.80 | <0.001 *** | 7.00 | 3.98 | <0.001 *** | 5.56 | 3.84 | 0.002 ** | 7.67 | 4.24 | <0.001 *** | 5.34 | 3.86 | <0.001 *** | 6.45 | 3.76 | 0.001 ** |
| Upper secondary | 4.20 | 3.01 | 5.65 | 3.37 | 3.84 | 2.76 | 6.39 | 3.34 | 4.58 | 3.21 | 4.85 | 3.23 | ||||||
| Up to four years at college/university | 3.87 | 2.97 | 5.10 | 3.27 | 4.02 | 3.04 | 5.68 | 3.33 | 3.70 | 2.89 | 4.46 | 3.07 | ||||||
| More than four years at college/university | 3.32 | 2.84 | 4.62 | 3.11 | 3.32 | 2.90 | 5.12 | 3.38 | 3.32 | 2.80 | 4.13 | 2.75 | ||||||
| Paternal education level | ||||||||||||||||||
| Compulsory education | 4.58 | 3.59 | 0.040 * | 5.91 | 3.54 | <0.001 *** | 4.53 | 3.04 | 0.448 | 6.53 | 3.52 | <0.001 *** | 4.63 | 4.10 | 0.215 | 5.30 | 3.50 | 0.079 |
| Upper secondary school | 3.93 | 3.07 | 5.56 | 3.36 | 3.74 | 3.09 | 6.49 | 3.42 | 3.74 | 2.99 | 4.63 | 3.03 | ||||||
| Up to four years at college/university | 3.74 | 3.04 | 5.35 | 3.29 | 3.78 | 3.01 | 5.94 | 3.37 | 4.11 | 3.15 | 4.62 | 3.04 | ||||||
| More than four years at college/university | 3.72 | 2.89 | 4.71 | 3.13 | 3.73 | 2.90 | 5.21 | 3.29 | 3.71 | 2.89 | 4.23 | 2.89 | ||||||
Abbreviations: Standard Deviation (SD); p-value (p); * significance at p < 0.05; ** significance at p < 0.01; *** significance at p < 0.001.