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. 2019 Jan 15;9:3064. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.03064

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Copyright © 2019 Shah, Smith, Wren, Webb, Ballard, Bourn, James and Lang.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Four potential pathways for generation of atypical memory B cells in chronic infections. Several pathways for the origin of atypical Bmem (ATM) have been proposed: 1.They may be Bmem derived from prematurely aborted GCs (top left), 2. Bmem derived from an extra-follicular differentiation pathway (bottom left); 3. Chronic Ag-mediated activation of previously functional Bmem may drive the expansion of ATM (top right), or 4. Represent the end stage for Bmem dislodged from survival niches due to repeated bystander activation (bottom right).