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The effect of astaxanthin on NF-κB and AP-1 activation in DSS mice. Immunohistochemical staining was performed for detection of mucosal activation of NF-κB p65 and c-Jun (original magnification ×400). NF-κB p65 and P-c-Jun was detected in the nucleus of the colonic epithelial cells in DSS-mice, but this was markedly blocked in the DSS plus 0.04% astaxanthin group. AX, astaxanthin.
