Table 1.
Current or potential biomarkers as diagnostic or prognostic tools for stroke.
| Biomarker Group | Molecule or Cell | Diagnostic Ability | Prognostic Ability | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Neurotropic Factors | Brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) |
↑at stroke onset | ↓ = poor prognosis | (Gandolfi et al., 2017) |
| Myokines | Irisin | ↑ = good prognosis | (Gandolfi et al., 2017) | |
| Myostatin | ↑ = muscle wasting | (Gandolfi et al., 2017) | ||
| Follistatin-like 1 (FSTL1) | ↑ = good prognosis | (Gandolfi et al., 2017) | ||
| Cytokines | IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10, IL- 4, IL-17, IL-23, TGF-α, IL-15, IL-19, IL-33, IL- 1β |
↑ at stroke onset | Varies | (Beghetti et al. 2003; Sonderer and Katan Kahles 2015; Bonaventura et al. 2016; Gandolfi et al. 2017) |
| Chemokines | C-X-C motif chemokine (CXCL)12; C-X3-C motif chemokine ligand (CX3CL)1; and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 |
↑ at stroke onset | Varies | (Bonaventura et al., 2016) |
| Neuropeptides | Neuropeptide Y | ↑ = good prognosis | (Gandolfi et al., 2017) | |
| Proenkephalin | ↑ = poor prognosis | (Gandolfi et al., 2017) | ||
| Growth Factors | Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) |
↑ at stroke onset | (Gandolfi et al., 2017) | |
| Immune Cells | CD4+CD28− T cells | ↑ = poor prognosis | (Gandolfi et al., 2017) | |
| Regulatory T cells (Tregs) |
Peripheral pattern changes after stroke |
↑ = good prognosis | (Gandolfi et al., 2017) | |
| Natural Killer (NK) cells |
↑ in brain at stroke onset |
(Gandolfi et al., 2017) | ||
| T and B Lymphocytes; CD4+ & CD8+ T cells; γδ-T cells |
↑ at stroke onset; peripheral pattern changes after stroke |
(Gandolfi et al., 2017; Bonaventura et al., 2016) | ||
| Microglia | ↑ at stroke onset | (Bonaventura et al., 2016) | ||
| Neutrophils | ↑ at stroke onset | (Bonaventura et al., 2016) | ||
| Dendritic cells | ↓ during stroke | (Gandolfi et al., 2017) | ||
| Protein & Enzyme | CRP, GTT, GPT, bilirubin |
↑ at stroke onset | Varies; typically ↑ = poor prognosis |
(Beghetti etal. 2003; Pineda et al. 2008; Tang et al. 2013; Luo et al. 2013; Muscari et al. 2014; Sonderer and Katan Kahles 2015; Bonaventura et al. 2016) |
| AP | Usually ↑ at stroke onset, but some variation |
↑ = poor prognosis | (Cheung et al. 2008; Metwalli et al. 2014; Muscari et al. 2014; Ryu et al. 2014; Lee et al. 2015; Schiff et al. 2016) | |
| MicroRNAs | miRNA-320b | ↓ = ↑ risk factor of carotid atherosclerosis |
(Gandolfi et al., 2017) | |
| miRNA-146a, −181b, and −30a |
Varies | ↓ = ↑ neuroprotection | (Martinez and Peplow 2016; Gandolfi et al. 2017; Khoshnam et al. 2017) |
|
| miRNA-107, −128b, and −153 | ↑ at stroke onset | (Martinez and Peplow, 2016; Khoshnam et al., 2017) | ||
| Reactive Oxygen Species |
Antioxidant enzymes | ↑ at stroke onset = redox imbalance |
(Bonaventura et al., 2016; Khoshnam et al., 2017) | |
| Damage Associated Molecular Patterns (DAMPS) |
Toll-like receptors (TLRs); neutrophil calcium influx |
↑ at stroke onset | (Bonaventura et al., 2016) |
Key: ↑ = increase; ↓ = decrease